Poil)ts e.^ 







LIBRA / OF CONGRESS. 



IJNiTED STATES OF AMERICA^ 



I 



POINTS OF HISTORY 



SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES 



BY 



JOHN LORD, LUD., 

AUTHOR OF "old ROMAN WORLD," "MODERN HISTORY," ETC 



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.<a^^l^^ 



hr."'*,i 




NEW YORK : 

A. S. BARNES & CO., 

Ill William Street. 
i88i. 



Copyright, 1881, by John Lord. 






PREFACE. 



This little book is designed for both teachers and pupils 
— as a sort of a supplement of ordinary school histories, not 
with a view of swpj^lamiing any in use, but to fix on the mind 
what is most vital and important in the history of civilization. 
It may be found useful, especially in reviews and examina- 
tions. There may be some question as to dates, but the au- 
thorities differ. In attempting to compress the salient points 
of the history of the world within less than two thousand 
questions and answers, some slight errors are probable ; but 
these will not affect the general value of the book, which it 
is believed by the author to be unique^ and on which much 
time and labor have been spent. 

Stamford, May^ 1881. 



CONTENTS 



Introductory Questions. 



CHAPTER I. 

PACK 
I 



CHAPTER II. 
History of Greece 7 

CHAPTER III. 
Roman History to the Conquest of Italy 23 

CHAPTER IV. 
Roman History from the Conquest of Italy to Julius C/esar... 29 

CHAPTER V. 
The Roman Empire under the Caesars 44 

CHAPTER VI. 
The Middle Ages, from the Fall of the Roman Empire to the 
Crusades 5b 



VI CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER VII. 

FAGB 

The Middle Ages, from the Crusades to the Discovery of 
America 67 

CHAPTER VIII. 
Europe in the Sixteenth Century S8 

CHAPTER IX. 
Continental Europe in the Seventeenth Century 103 

CHAPTER X. 
English History in the Seventeenth Century 121 

CHAPTER XI. 

Continental Europe in the Eighteenth Century to the French 
Revolution 136 

CHAPTER XII. 
England in the Eighteenth Century 145 

CHAPTER XIII. 
France, from the Revolution to the Fall of Napoleon 164 

CHAPTER XIV. 

English History in the Nineteenth Century until the Accession 
OF Queen Victoria 182 



b 



CONTENTS, Vll 

CHAPTER XV. 

PAGE 

European Continental History, from the Fall of Napoleon to 
THE Second Empire 193 

CHAPTER XVI. 
England during the Reign of Queen Victoria 204 

CHAPTER XVII. 
European Continental History from the Fall of Napoleon 219 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

American History, from the Revolutionary War to the end of 
the Civil War 234 



POINTS OF HISTORY. 



CHAPTER I. 
Introductory Questions. 

1. What is history? 

A narrative of liuman events, of the lives of distinguished 
men, and of the progress of art, science, and literature. 

2. What is the first event of human history recorded in the Hebrew 
Scriptures ? 

The creation of Adam, from the dust of the earth, into 
whom the Creator breathed a living soul. 

3. What is the second great event in human history ? 
The fall of man, and his expulsion from Eden. 

4. What were the consequences ? 

The rapid degeneracy of his descendants, and the gen- 
eral prevalence of wickedness. 

5. What great catastrophe was sent upon the race in consequence of 
this wickedness ? 

A general deluge, which destroyed the human race, except- 
ing Noah and his family, who were saved in an ark built by 
divine command. 



2 INTRODUCTORY QUESTIONS. 

6. Who were the sons of Noah ? 

Shem, Ham, and Japhet, from whom all the present in- 
habitants of the earth are supposed to have sprung. 

7. What is the first recorded fact of importance after the deluge ? 
The partial building of Babel, the confusion of languages, 

and the dispersion of the descendants of Noah, probably un- 
der patriarchal leaders. 

8. Who was the most noted man of this period, according to Genesis ? 
Nimrod, grandson of Ham, a mighty hunter, who reigned 

in the land of Shinar. 

9. What great monarchies did the descendants of Ham found ? 
Assyria, Egypt, and Phoenicia, all of which were great 

states in the time of Abraham. 

10. Which of these states was the most famous ? 

Egypt, whose pyramids and cities attest a high civilization, 
and a great antiquity. 

11. What great man did the descendants of Shem produce, who 
lived in the Valley of Mesopotamia ? 

Abraham, born ten generations after I^oah, who migrated 
from Chaldea to Palestine, and became the founder of the 
Hebrew nation. 

12. What constituted his greatness? 

He restored the worship of one God. 

13. What, in the meantime, became of the descendants of Japhet ? 
They wandered from Armenia to India on the east, and to 

Thrace, Greece, Scandinavia, and Italy on the west. 



INTRODUCTORY QUES710NS. 3 

14. What is the most important historical event after the death of 
Abraham ? 

The sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt, under the patron- 
age of the Shepherd Kings, called Hyesos, who were sup- 
posed to be nomadic Scythians. 

15. By whom were the Israelites delivered, after a degrading bondage ? 
By God, and led by Moses, the greatest man ever born 

among the Jews, and learned in all the wisdom of the Egyp- 
tians. 

16. What has given to him his influence and fame ? 

The system of laws which he gave his nation, which has 
entered even into modern Christian codes. 

17. Who were the early inhabitants of Greece ? 

The Pelasgians, or an Indo-European people, sometimes 
called Aryan, sufficiently civilized to build walled cities and 
engage in commerce. 

18. What happened to this people ? 

They were partially conquered by another Aryan race, 
called the Hellenes. 

19. What distinguished the Hellenes? 

They built the most famous of the Grecian cities, embarked 
in commerce, and were very warlike. 

20. Where do we get a knowledge of the early Hellenic races ? 
From the ancient Grecian legends, the contemporaneous 

histories of other nations, and monumental inscriptions. 

21. What do these indicate ? 

The existence of various trades and occupations, agricul- 
tural skill, walled cities, horses and chariots, military weapons, 



4 INTRODUCTORY QUESTIONS, 

mills for grinding corn, rich dresses, temples, palaces, and the 
virtues of domestic life. 

22. What form did religion take ? 

The worship of ancestors, and the deification of the powers 
of nature. 

23. What great event took place in Asia during the traditional or 
heroic ages of Greece ? 

The Trojan war, which led to the colonization of Asia 
Minor by the Greeks. 

24. What marked Hebrew history in these heroic ages ? 

Great improvements in agriculture, and constant wars 
against the Canaanites. 

25.. Who completed the conquests of these and established the Jew- 
ish monarchy ? 

David, the great hero of Jewish history, who made Jeru- 
salem, then occupied by Jebusites, his capital. 

26. What were the most powerful empires, at this time, in the world ? 
Assyria and Egypt, Phoenicia and China, whose glories cul- 
minated before Grecian authentic history began. 

27. What was there remarkable in their civilization ? 

The cabalistic wisdom of their priesthood, grand monu- 
ments, palaces of kings, considerable attainment in sculp- 
ture, painting, potteries, textile fabrics, tools, and weapons of 
war. 

28. Which was the most famous oriental city at this period ? 
Nineveh, which it is said was sixty miles in circuit, and 

contained 500,000 people. 



INTRODUCTORY QUESTIONS. 5 

29. What other great power was then rising into notice ? 

That of the Medes and Persians, who belonged to the 
Aryan race, the most warlike of the Asiatic nations, whose 
empire extended from the Caspian Sea to the deserts of Iran. 

30. What is known of India before this period ? 

Very little ; but the Sanscrit, the dead language of Indian 
literature, reveals a great antiquity, much of which is confirmed 
by monumental records. 

31. What was most marked in the religion and customs of all these 
Indo-European races ? 

The worship of ancestors, whose spirits were invoked by 
the priesthood, and a patriarchal state of society. 

32. What other great nation flourished when authentic history be- 
gins ? 

The Chinese, who claim to be the oldest nation upon earth, 
whose early civilization is thought to have equalled and pre- 
ceded that of the Egyptians, whose religion was ancestral wor- 
ship, and whose imperial government was patriarchal m its 
general characteristics. 

33. When is it supposed that Buddhism was introduced into India ? 
About 600 years before Christ, by Prince Gautama, who 

was regarded as a Buddha, or spirit sent from God on a mis- 
sion of reform, looked for about every six hundred years, and 
the last one of four such incarnations noted in oriental annals. 

34. What other great teachers lived in Asia about this time ? 

Confucius and Mencius, who, about the year 550 before 
Christ, collected and rewrote the sacred books of China. 
They believed in immortality and taught doctrines of exalted 
morality. 



6 INTRODUCTORY QUESTIONS. 

35. What notable teacher about this time changed the form of Per- 
sian religion ? 

Zoroaster, supposed to have been a Phoenician, who con- 
verted the Persians from the worship of God as taught by 
their Magi, or wise men, to a worship of fire — a religion, it is 
tliouglit, which Phoenician merchants had brought from the 
Hamites of Africa. 

36. How far back does the authentic history of Japan extend ? 

To Zimnu Tenno, who reigned b. c. 660, and from whom 
Mutsohito, the present emperor, is a lineal desj3endant. 



37. What is the earliest date of Chinese ancient history, according 
to Chinese records ? 

The earliest consecutive records extend to b. c. 3588 years, 
but claim an immensely greater antiquity. 



I would say here, that the dates of ancient history, among 
all nations, are so unsatisfactory and so controverted, that, in 
these introductory questions, I have purposely omitted most of 
them, even those which are popularly accepted. It is not yet 
definitely determined by critics and historians when the crea- 
tion of man took place, or the deluge, or the call of Abra- 
ham, or when the Egyptian pyramids were built. 



CHAPTEE II. 
The Histor-s of Greece. 

38. When does the authentic History of Greece begin ? 

At the restoration of the Olympic Games, about 776 years 
before Christ. 

39. What Grecian state first became powerful ? 

Sparta, which had been founded by the Dorians— calling 
themselves descendants of Hercules, who conquered the old 
Achsean population. 

40. Who was the first great man among the Spartans ? 
Lycurgus,who gave an aristocratic form of government, 

and inspired, among the 9,000 citizens who composed the state, 
a haughty spirit of domination and of military life. 

41. Which was the second most powerful of the early Grecian 
states ? 

Athens-governed by kings for 500 years, it is supposed, 
after its foundation, and then by archons annually elected. 

■42. Who was the most famous of these archons ? 

Draco, who governed Athens 624 years before Christ, and 
caused severe laws to be enacted. 

43. Who made a change in the constitution of Athens a few years 
after him ? 

Solon, who distributed power among the people, instituted 



8 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

a democratic government, and restored the court of the Areo- 
pagus to which was entrusted the custody of the public money, 
and all matters pertaining to religion and morals. 

44. What is meant by the custom of ostracism which he retained or 
established ? 

That by which 5,000 votes could consign a dangerous man 
to banishment, without accusation of crime. 

45. Who overturned the liberties of Athens ? 

Pisistratus, b. c. 560, but who reigned beneficently thirty- 
three years, and became a patron of literature and art. 

46. What literary work was he famous for ? 

For the collection of the poems of Homer in a single 
volume — the Iliad and Odyssey, composed, it is supposed, about 
960 B. c. 

47. What other great poet flourished soon after the time of Homer ? 
Hesiod, who incorporated in his poems the mythology of 

the Greeks. 

48. When was the first comedy performed at Athens ? 
About the year 562 b. 0. 

49. When was trngedy first acted at Athens ? 

Five hundred and thirty-five years before Christ, by 
Thespis. 

50. What celebrated temples were built about this period ? 
That of Diana at Ephesus, and of Jupiter at Olympia. 

51. What African city was gaining importance at this period ? 
Carthage, founded 881 b. c. by the Phoenicians, about thirty 

years before the foundation of Eome. 



THE HISTORY OF GKEECE. 9- 

52. What great philosopher was born about the year 636 B. C. ? 
Thales, of Miletus, who founded the Ionian school, and 

sought to establish the origin of matter. 

53. When was the democratic constitution of Athens restored ? 
About the year 521 b. c. by Clisthenes, six years after the 

death of Pisistratus. 

54. What great Persian conqueror arose about this time ? 

Cyrus, who reigned over Media, Assyria, Babylonia, Asia 
Minor, Phoenicia, Palestine, and Syria. 

55. What event first embroiled Greece with this great Persian empire ? 
The conquest of the Ionian cities of Asia Minor, Grecian 

colonies, by Darius, who succeeded Cyrus. 

56. What marked Jewish history about this time ? 

The Babylonian captivity, and the fall of the Jewish mon- 
archy. 

57. What other great contemporaneous event ? 

The fall of Babylon, the grandest city of oriental antiquity 
and its incorporation with the Persian empire. 

58. What marked Roman history at this period ? 

The expulsion of kings, and the establishment of a repub- 
lic, B. c. 509. 

59. What settled the Persian war. when Greece was invaded by Darius, 
with a large army ? 

The battle of Marathon, b. c. 490, gained by Miltiades, 
which freed the Greeks from all fears of the Persian power, 
but which led to renewed preparations for the invasion of 
Greece by the Persians. 



lO POINTS OF HISTORY. 

60. Who marshaled the Persian forces nine years after the battle of 
Marathon ? 

Xerxes, son of Darius, who led an army of three millions 
of men, besides a fleet of 1207 triremes, or vessels of war, and 
3000 transports, and crossed the Hellespont. 

61. Where was resistance first made to the Persian hosts ? 

At the pass of Thermopylae, which Leonidas and 300 
Spartans defended until they were all slain. 

62. What event turned the fortune of war in favor of the Greeks ? 
The naval battle of Salamis, b. c. 480, won by Themisto- 

cles with 366 ships, which led to the flight of Xerxes. 

63. What decisive battle freed Greece from the invaders ? 

That of Platsea, b. c. 479, won by the Spartan general 
Pausanias, and in which 110,000 Greeks defeated 300,000 
Persians under Mardonius. 

64. What battle delivered the Ionian cities ? 

That of Mycale, the following year, which closed the war. 

65. What became of Xerxes after this memorable defeat ? 

He retired to Susa, gave himself up to pleasure, married a 
Jewess by the name of Esther, and entrusted the government 
of the empire to her relative Mordecai. 

66. What great thing was effected by the elevation of Esther ? 

The salvation of the Jewish race from threatened extermi- 
nation. 

67. What became of the Grecian generals who delivered their country 
''rom the Persians ? 

They became intoxicated with their success, proved trai- 
tors, and died exiles. 



THE HISTORY OF GREECE. II 

68. What marked the history of Greece after the Persian war ? 
The rivalry between Athens and Sparta, which ended in 

the Peloponnesian war. 

69. What created this rivalry ? 

The fortification of the port of Athens, called the Pirgeiis, 
the increase of the navy, and the hostilities grown out of con- 
flicting political institutions. 

70. What distinguished Athenian ruled Athens between the Persian 
and Peloponnesian wars ? 

Pericles— a great statesman, an elegant scholar, an eloquent 
orator, and a generous patriot. 

71. What maybe said of Athens during his rule ? 

That it was the most glorious period of its existence— in 
which arts and learning flourished. 

72. Who gave an impulse to arts ? 

Phidias, chiefly. He made the famous statues of Zeus and 
Athena, and adorned the Parthenon with statues and paintings. 
The whole city was adorned and enriched. 

73. Who distinguished himself in philosophy, and laid the foundation 
of a great intellectual revolution ? 

Socrates, who confuted the Sophists— fashionable teachers— 
by his ironical questions, and taught the unity of God and the 
immortality of the soul. He established a sure foundation of 
knowledge by his celebrated definitions. 

74. What intellectual movement was represented by Euripides ? 
Dramatic and Tragic poetry. His dramas h^ve been the 

delight of all ages, not so sublime as those of JEschyUis, who 
preceded him, but more finished an.l elegant. 



12 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

75. What do we associate with Herodotus ? 

History, of which he is called the father. His greatness 
was in his lucidity, simplicity, and profound knowledge. 

76. Who was Meton ? 

A great mathematician, who gave an impulse to astronomy. 

77. Who was famous, at this period, as a comic poet ? 
Aristophanes, who ridiculed everybody and everything, as 

Moliere did 2,000 years afterwards, and exposed what is absurd 
or pretentious. 

78. Who were the painters who rivaled the sculptors in fame ? 
Zeuxis and Polygnotus — praised by the same critics who 

admired Phidias. 

79. What famous institution gave great attraction to Greece at this 
time? 

The Olympic and other games, which included intellectual 
exercises, with races and athletic sports. 

80. What was the effect of these great national games ? 

They stimulated genius, and gave health and vigor to the 
body. 

81. What else did Pericles encourage and stimulate ? 

Ship building, commerce, graceful potteries, agriculture, 
mechanical arts, and military skill. 

82. What might have happened were it not for the jealousy of Sparta ? 
The ascendency of Athens in Greece, and a great and united 

empire, with Athens for its capital. 

83. What vyere the resources of Athens at the breaking out of the 
Peloponnesian war ? 

A treasure of 0,000 talents — equal to about $6,000,000, 



THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 1 3 

hoarded in the acropolis or castle — a large revenue from depen- 
dent allies, an army of 29,000 heavy armed infantry — called 
hoplites — and a navy of 300 large vessels called triremes, with 
three tiers of rowers. 

84. How great were the forces at Sparta ? 
More than double those of Athens. 

85. How long did this war continue ? 

About ten years, during which Athens was besieged and 
Attica was devastated, and Pericles died. 

86. What famous Athenians did the war produce? 
Cleon, Themistocles, the historian, and Alcibiades. 

87. What was the decisive battle of the war ? 

The battle of Delium, gained by the Spartans, followed by 
the fall of Amphipolis, the most impregnable and valuable of 
the foreign possessions of Athens, which led to the peace of 
Nicias. 

%Z. Who induced the Athenians to break the peace ? 
Alcibiades, a wealthy, beautiful, arrogant, ambitious, and 
accomplished demagogue. 

89. What gave the final blow to this disastrous war ? 

The expedition against Sicily, a Dorian colony, which, con- 
ducted by Kicias, disgracefully failed. The fatal battle of 
^gospotamus destroyed the navy of Athens, and the city fell 
after 100 years' prosperity, and Sparta became the leading 
Grecian state. 

90. What was the result of the supremacy of Sparta ? 

The political ruin of Greece, in consequence of incessant 
wars o gratify the military ambition of Spartan generals. 



14 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

91. What was the next great event in Grecian history after the 
Peloponnesian war ? 

Tlie retreat of 10,000 Greeks, whom Xenophon, the histo- 
rian, led into Persia to assist Cyrus in dethroning his brother 
Artaxerxes. 

92. What was the poHtical effect of this expedition ? 

It produced a contempt of the Persians, and prepared the 
way for the conquests of Alexander. 

93. Who was the most famous man in Greece at this period ? 
Lysander, the Spartan general, who had more power than 

ever enjoyed before by a Greek, and who hated free institutions. 

94. What gave a great blow to Spartan ascendency ? 

The battle of Cydnus, b. c. 394, gained by the Persians, 
which encouraged Thebes to throw off the Spartan yoke. 

95. What further weakened the power of Sparta? 

The battle of Coronsea, which led to the desertion of 
maritime allies, and a peace with Persia which sacrificed the 
Ionian cities of Asia Minor. 

96. What completed the humiliation of Sparta ? 

The victories of Epaminondas, the Theban general, and the 
greatest master of war before Alexander. 

97. What was his contribution to the art of war ? 

A new system of tactics, said to be known to the Assyrians, 
the principle of which was the advance of troops obliquely, in 
the form of a wedge, or, as is called, in echelon, by which a 
great force could be concentrated at a given point — instead of 
fighting simultaneously along the whole line. . 



THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 1$ 

98. What battle was gained by Epaminondas against Sparta, which 
may be regarded as one of the decisive battles of the world ? 

That of Leuctra, b. c. 370, which crippled tlie power of 
Sparta, and led to the invasion of her territories and the 
emancipation of the Helots. 

99. Who were the Helots ? 

The old inhabitants, who had been conquered by the Spar- 
tans, and subjected to cruel bondage. 

100. What finally broke the power of Sparta ? 

The battle of Mantinea, gained by Epaminondas, b. c. 3G2, 
when the attacking column, fifty shields deep, pressed like 
the prow of a ship against the opposing column eight shields 
deep. 

loi. What other Theban general gained great fame in the war with 
Sparta ? 

Pelopidas, by his victories in Thessaly and Macedonia. 

102. What great Spartan king was opposed to the Thebans ? 

Agesilaus, who died in Egypt after a brilliant reign of 
forty -five years — the greatest name in Spartan annals after 
Lysander. 

103. What great character in Sicily was the contemporary of Epami- 
nondas, who was killed at the battle of Mantinea ? 

Dionysius, called the tyrant, who led an army of 100,000 
men, andl reigned absolutely, at Syracuse. 

104. With whom were the inhabitants of Sicily generally at war ? 

The Carthaginians, a colony planted in Africa by the 
Phoenicians, and therefore a different race from the Greek 
colonies, who were Indo-European, or Aryan. 



l6 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

105. What other power was now rising into notice ? 

That of the Romans, who were just emerging from the 
government of kings. 

106. What were the conquests of Dionysius? 

He defeated the Carthaginians, became master of Southern 
Italy, and made Syracuse a powerful state, which had a navy 
of 350 vessels, the largest employed in war for 300 years. 

107. What was the end of this tyrant and conqueror ? 

He died at Athens, b. c. 467, in a fit of intoxication, from 
excessive joy at having won a prize for tragedy at one of the 
games, after a reign of thirty-eight years. 

108. Who succeeded him in the government of Syracuse ? 
His son Dionysius, called the younger. 

109. What made this feeble prince famous ? 

His patronage of Plato, whom he invited to his capital ? 

no. What was remarkable about Plato, the philosopher? 

He taught the doctrine of eternal ideas, based on self- 
evident truths, from which great deductions are made, which 
gave a new development to philosophy. From Socrates he 
learned the doctrine of immortality. 

111. Who succeeded Dionysius ? 

His brother Dion, who deposed him, a man of great ability 
and virtue, but who was assassinated for his stern virtues. 

112. What became of Dionysius ? 

He regained power, was again defeated by Timoleon, and 
was exiled to Corinth, where he taught school. 

113. Who was Timoleon? 

A noble Corinthian, who, after rendering illustrious ser- 



THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 1 7 

vices to the state, laid down his power, and retired vohmtarily to 
private life, 337 b. c. — one of the best men of Pagan antiquity. 

114. What Grecian city arose to eminence after the Theban and 
Spartan wars ? 

Corinth, distinguished ^or luxury, elegance, and wealth, 
which endeavored to preserve the balance of power. 

1 1 5. What is meant by Balance of Power ? 

A political idea, which has ever been directed to the sup- 
pression of powerful states supposed to be dangerous to the 
liberties of other states. 

116. What has resulted from this idea? 

Incessant wars, especially in our modern times. 

117. What great general arose after the humiliation of Sparta ? 
Philip, king of Macedon, who destroyed the liberties of 
Greece. 

118. What led to his ascendency ? 

The battle of Chseronea, gained by Philip by his famous 
Macedonian phalanx, which gave him the control over the 
Thebans and Athenians. 

119. What was called the " Sacred War " ? 

That brought about by the seizure of the citadel of Thebes 
by Sparta in time of peace, wliicli involved the other states, 
and led to dissensions, of which the crafty Philip availed him- 
self to make himself supreme in Greece. 

120. What great Athenian orator unmasked the designs of Philip, and 
attempted to rouse the Athenians from their political lethargy ? 

Demosthenes, whose warnings came too late. The spirit 



l6 POINTS OF HISTORY, 

of liberty had fled. Greece became absorbed in the conquests 
of Philip. 

121. What did Philip meditate after the conquest of Greece ? 

The invasion of Persia, but was assassinated before his 
preparations were made, at the age pf 47 — b. c. 336. 

122. What made Athens illustrious after the extinction of her liber- 
ties ? 

The various schools of philosophy. 

123. Who was the most famous philosopher of these schools in the 
middle of the fourth century before Christ ? 

Aristotle, called the Stagirite, for some time a pupil of 

Plato. 

124. What was the spirit of his philosophy ? 

The severity of his method, directed to the observation of 
nature, rather than abstract ideas. 

125. Why did his philosophy not lead to grand discoveries, since 
he was the father of positive science ? 

Because there were not sufficient facts then known in 
science to warrant sound inductions. 

126. What is meant by induction ? 

Reasoning from a great array of facts, and thus arriving at 
probability, and sometimes to certainty. 

127. Who were the most famous of the Greek philosophers after 
Plato and Aristotle ? 

Epicurus, who taught that pleasure was the end of life ; 
Zeno, who maintained that the end of life was virtue ; and 
Pyrro, who denied that there was any criterion of truth. 



THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 1 9 

128. What great political event took place while the Greek philoso- 
phers were founding schools, or near the time ? 

The invasion of Asia by Alexander tlie Groat, the son of 
Philip, and the establishment of the Macedonian empire. 

129. What marked Roman history at this period ? 
Wars with the Samnites and Latins. 

130. When did Alexander ascend the throne of Macedon? 

In the year 336 b. c, when he was twenty years of age. 

131. What were some of the more important of his early acts ? 

He completed the subjugation of Greece, annihilated 
Thebes, and sent dismay into the hearts of all the people of 
the various states. 

132. When did he invade Asia? 

In two years after his accession to the throne, with the 
veteran troops of his father, although they numbered only 
about 40,000 men. 

133. What great error did the Persians make at the beginning of the 
war ? 

They allowed Alexander to cross the Hellespont unopposed, 
in disdain of so small a force, and hoping to crush it in Asia. 

134. What was the first great victory of Alexander? 

The crossing of the Granicus, effected by the cavalry, 

which made Alexander master of Asia Minor. 

i 

135. What course did the Persians, under the king Darius, pursue 
'after their defeat ? 

They retreated, but only to raise an army of 500,000 
infantry, and 100,000 cavalry, with the expectation of driving 
the invaders back to Europe. 



20 



POINTS OF HISTORY. 



I ->6. What errors did they commit ? 

Not properly guarding the mountain passes, and subsi- 
dizing the Greeks- an easy thing with their immense treas- 



'to 

ures. 



137. What course did Alexander pursue in this great crisis ? 

He obtained reinforcements from Macedonia, and pene- 
trated into Cilicia, by the route pursued by Cyrus seventy 
years before. 

138 What decisive battle took place near the mountain passes ? 
The battle of Issus, where 40,000 men routed 600,000, and 

slew 100,000. 

139 What were the results of this great victor)' ? 

The flight of the Persians to the banks of the Euphrates, 
which gave the conqueror time to subdue his enemies m his 



rear. 



140 What was the next eventful feat of Alexander ? 
The siege and reduction of Tyre, which destroyed the ships 
of the Phoenicians, on which the Persians now relied. 

141. What next occupied his military genius? 

The conquest of Gaza, built on an artificial mound 250 feet 
high, and deemed impregnable, which he took by raising a still 
higher mound around the city. 

142. What followed from these successes? 

The occupation of Egypt, and the founding of the city of 
Alexandria, and then the invasion of Persia. 

143 What battle decided the fate of Persia? 

That of Arbela, gained by an army of 40,000 infantry and 



THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 21 

7,000 cavalry over a Persian army of a million of infantry and 
40,000 cavalry. 

144. What were the fruits of this stupendous victory ? 

The fall of Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis, enormous spoils, 
and the abject submission of Persia. 

145. How great were the spoils ? 

The enormous sum of 120,000 talents, ten times greater 
than Athens had hoarded for the Peloponnesian war— probably 
equal to a thousand millions of dollars in our time, when the 
relative value of gold and silver is considered. 

146. After the conquest of Persia, what next occupied the attention 
of the ambitious conqueror ? 

The conquest of India, as far as the Indian Ocean. 

147. What arrested his victories ? 

The discontent of his soldiers, and his death at Babylon, 
after a debauch, at the age of thirty-two, b. c. 323. 

148. What became of his vast empire after his death? 
It was divided among his generals. 

149. What powerful states arose from the division of the empire ? 
The most powerful were Syria and Egypt, the one ruled 

by Seleucus, whose capital was Antioch, the other by Ptolemy, 
whose capital was Alexandria. 

1 50. Who were the most celebrated of the Seleucidae who reigned in 
Syria ? 

Antiochus the Great and Antiochus Epiphanes. 

151. For what are these monarchs best known in history ? 

For the persecution of the Jews, ruled by the high-priests 
after the return from Babylon. 



22 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1 52. Who rescued the Jews from the yoke of Syria ? 

Tlie Maccabees, a family of heroic generals, the most fa- 
mous of whom was Judas. 

153. What marked Jewish history between the restoration from cap- 
tivity to the advent of Christ ? 

Ecclesiastical dissensions, the rise of powerful religious 
sects, the development of industry, and the flourishing state 
of learning. It was the literary period of Jewish history. 

154. What marked the reigns of the Ptolemies in Egypt ? 

Frequent wars with Syria, a rival power, and an extraor- 
dinary attention to literature at Alexandria, at that time one 
of the largest and most powerful cities of the world, and a 
great commercial mart. 

155. For what was it most famous ? 

For its great library of 700,000 volumes, collected by Ptol- 
emy Philadelphus, for its university and learned men. 

156. What powerful oriental prince was most famous for his con- 
quests after the division of Alexander's empire? 

Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who conquered Macedonia and in- 
vaded Italy. 

1 57. What was the grand result of Alexander's conquests ? 

The introduction of Grecian civilization into Asia Minor, 
Syria, and Egypt. 

158. What great state in Europe was becoming powerful during the 
reigns of the Seleucidae and the Ptolemies ? 

The Roman republic, which had incorporated the greater 
part of Italy with its rising empire. 

References, — Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, Rawlinson's He- 
rodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Plutarch's Lives, Laertius' Lives of the Pliilosophers, 
Grote's History of Greece, Thirlwall's History of Greece, Rolliu's Ancient History, 
Rawlinson's Ancient Monarchies, Encyclopedia Britannica, (Article on Greece). 



CHAPTEE III. 

The Roman Republic till the Conquest of Italy. 

159. When was Rome founded ? 

It is supposed in the year 751 b. c, by Romulus, about the 
period when Grecian authentic history begins, when Babylon 
was the capital of the most powerful monarchy in the world. 

160. What was the government of Rome for 250 years ? 
That of kings, who were limited in their power by the 
people and the senate. 

161. What was the elemental principle of religion among the early 
Romans ? 

The worship of ancestors, as in primitive Greece and 
Northern India and China, animated by the belief that dead 
ancestors had power over the living, which led to votive offer- 
ings, the family altar, the Lares and Penates. 

162. What social organization arose from this worship ? 

The patriarchal rule, as in most ancient states in the in- 
fancy of society. The head of a family had supreme power 
over his wife and children, even that of life and death, as in 
the time of Abraham. 

163. What monuments indicate a considerable civilization among the 
Romans during the reigns of kings ? 

The Cloaca Maxima — a great sewer wliich drained the city, 
the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline HilL, the enclosure of 



24 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

the city by walls embracing the seven hills on which it was 
built. 

164. What political distinctions arose during the reigns of the kings ? 

The division of the people into patricians, the descend- 
ants of the original settlers, and plebeians, the descendants of 
the inhabitants of conquered towns transferred to Rome. 

165. Under what king was the constitution organized, or remodeled ? 
Servius Tullius, the sixth king, who divided the whole 

population into thirty tribes, called Curige, each of which 
managed its local affairs. 

166. What was the basis of the Servian constitution } 

The possession of property as a claim to political power, 
which favored rich plebeians. 

167. By whom was the government of kings overturned ? 
By the patricians, b.c. 510, who ruled the repubhc as a 
powerful aristocracy, till the time of Julius Caesar. 

168. To whom did the revolution intrust executive power ? 

To two consuls, annually elected by the citizens, and gen- 
erally from the patrician ranks, who controlled elections. 

169. What power had these consuls ? 

They convened the senate, introduced foreign ambassadors, 
and commanded the armies. 

170. What was the senate ? 

Those citizens who had held curule offices, or great officers 
of state, who generally belonged to the patrician class. 

171. What were the powers of this aristocratic assembly ? 

The administration of religious rites, a dictation to consuls 



THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 2$ 

as to the conduct of war, the appointment of governors of 
provinces, and the initiative in all matters of legislation ; that is, 
no measure could be acted on by the people in their assemblies 
until discussed by the senate. 

172. Who were the curule officers who, after serving their term, 
composed the senate ? 

The consuls ; praetors or supreme judges ; quaestors and cu- 
rators, or those who had care of the public buildings, and cen- 
sors, who regulated the manners and finances of the republic. 
The senate, therefore, was composed of the aristocracy and 
men of experience. 

173. What marked the internal history of Rome under the consuls for 
200 years? 

The oppression of the plebeians by the patricians, who 
held supreme political power. 

174. What first weakened the ascendency of the aristocracy? 

The establishment of tribunes, chosen from the plebeians, 
who had rebelled, who had the power of veto in the enaction 
of laws. 

175. After the establishment of tribunes, who was the first Roman 
that made a mark in history ? 

Caius Marcius, called Coriolanus, a proud patrician. 

176. What made him famous ? 

His exile, in consequence of proposing a law which should 
withhold corn from the plebeians in time of famine, until they 
should relinquish their privileges. 

177. What treason did this great aristocrat commit in his exile ? 

He incited the Yolscians to attack Rome under his leader- 
ship, which was only saved by the intercession of his patriotic 
mother Yoluinnia. 



2"6 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

178. What memorable character next appears in Roman history ? 

L. Qiiintus Cincinnatus, made dictator b. c. 458, when Rome 
was threatened by the Equians and Yolscians. 

1 79. What was the dictatorship ? 

The supreme authority of the state for two months, an oc- 
casional office in great public dangers. 

180. Who laid the foundation of Roman jurisprudence ? 

Appius Claudius, who secured the appointment of ten men 
to draw up a code of laws, called the ten tables, and who 
visited Athens at the height of her prosperity, between the 
Persian and Peloponnesian wars. 

181. What political change resulted from the code of the notables ? 

The appointment of decemvirs, or ten patricians with su- 
preme power, which, however, was of brief continuance, in con- 
sequence of the violation of Yirginia by Appius Claudius. 

182. What political event of great importance resulted from this 
outrage ? 

The creation of ten tribunes, elected by plebeians, whose 
persons were inviolable, who were admitted into the senate, 
without a vote, but who had the privilege of veto. 

183. What law was passed in the year B. C. 445 which further weak- 
ened the power of the patricians ? 

That which permitted marriage between patricians and 
plebeians. 

184. What next contributed to the power of the plebeians? 

The opening of the office of quaestor to the plebeians, which 
secured their entrance into the senate. 



THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. V 

185. What political event, about this time, added to the power of 
Rome ? 

The siege and fall of Yeii, an Etruscan city, which added 
Etniria to the republic. 

186. What signal misfortune retarded the expansion of Rome soon 
after the fall of Veii ? 

The invasion of the Gauls, a Celtic people, who advanced 
to the walls of Kome and laid siege to the city, but were 
bought off by a ransom of 100,000 pounds of gold, b. c. 390. 

187. Who recovered the fortunes of Rome ? 

Camillus, whose victories were the most important that the 
republic had then achieved, and who was contemporaneous 
with Epaminondas. 

188. What war made the Romans the strongest power in Italy ? 
The Samnite war, which lasted, at brief intervals, for fifty 

years, from 343 b. c. to 292 b.c, and of which Quintus Flavius 
was the great hero, a period contemporaneous with Alexander's 
victories. 

189. What was the drawback to this war? 

The revolt of the Latin cities, which were subdued by Man- 
lius Torquatus. 

190. What secured to the Romans the supremacy of Italy ? 

The war with the Etruscans, and the reduction of Taren- 
tum, a Dorian colony of great wealth. 

191. Who came, by invitation, to the rescue of the Tarentines ? 
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, with a large army and twenty 

elephants. 



28 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

192. With what success ? 

He defeated the Romans, with the aid of the Tarentines, at 
the bloody battle of Heraclea, b. c. 280, who, however, refused 
to make peace. 

193. What ended the war ? 

The battle of Beneventum, won by Manlius Curins Denta- 
tus, six years after Pyrrhus landed in Italy, which secured the 
fall of Tarentum. 

194. What results followed the fall of Tarentum ? 

The complete ascendency of Rome in Italy, which excited 
the jealousy of foreign powers. 

195. What city became especially jealous of Rome ? 

Carthage, which had the supremacy of the sea, then the 
most powerful city of the world. 

196. What political influence did Greece have at this period ? 
Yery little, as her liberties had perished. 

197. What compensated the loss of political power ? 

The flourishing state of literature, art, philosophy and 
science. 

198. Who were eminent among the Greeks at this period ? 
Euclid, the mathematician ; Zeno, the stoical philosopher ; 

Demetrius, the comic poet ; Laches, who erected the Colossus of 
Rhodes ; Praxiteles, the sculptor ; and Epicurus, the philosopher. 

199. What vast engineering work in the east was done about this 
time ? 

The Chinese wall, as a defence against the Tartars. 



CHAPTEE lY. 

EOME TILL THE EeIGN OF THE C^SAKS. 

200. What is the great subject of interest in Roman history after the 
fall of Tarentum. 

The Punic or Carthaginian wars, which lasted more than a 
century. 

201. What animated these wars ? 
Rivahy and military ambition. 

202. What was the cause of the first war, which commenced B. C 
264, only eight years after the fall of Tarentum ? 

The seizure of Rhegium, in Sicily, which belonged to the 
allies of Carthage, to prevent the Carthaginians from control- 
ling the Mediterranean. 

203. What did this offensive and aggressive act lead to ? 

The necessity of a navy, which the Romans constructed 
from the model of a Carthaginian vessel wrecked on the Italian 
coast. 

204. How did the Romans contend with the Carthaginians on the sea. 
when they had no naval experience ? 

They grappled the enemy's ships, one by one, and fought, 
as it were, hand to hand. 

205. What was the first naval battle of importance which the Romans 
fought ? 

That of Ecnormus, on the coast of Sicily, in the tenth year 
of the war, and won by Regulus, the Roman general. 



30 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

206. How was victory gained ? 

On the same principle as that adopted by Epaminondas in 
the Theban wars, by forming the ships in the shape of a 
wedge, and concentrating them on a single point, and thus 
breaking the line. 

207. What was the result of this victory ? 

It enabled the Romans to land an army in Africa, and ad- 
vance within ten miles of Carthage. 

208. What saved Carthage ? 

The recall of Hamilcar, a great general from Sicily, and 
the assistance rendered by Xantippus, a Spartan general, with 
Greek mercenaries. 

209. What baffled the Romans ? 

Their defeat, under Regulus, so complete that only 2000 
escaped. 

210. After this great defeat how were the Romans able to continue 
the war ? 

By constructing a new navy and raising a new army. 

21 1. What closed the first Punic war? 

The fall of Panormus in Sicily, which secured that fertile 
island to the Romans. 

212. What were the Roman losses in this war, which closed B.C. 
241 ? 

Four great fleets, and 40,000 men. 

213. What became of Regulus after he was taken captive by the 
Carthaginians on his defeat ? 

He was sent on an embassy to Rome, and after advising 



ROME TILL THE REIGN OF THE C^SARS. 3 1 

the Romans not to make peace, he voluntarily returned to Car- 
thage, with chivalric honor, and was tortured and executed. 

214. What great military principle did the Romans learn by this war? 
The necessity of regular forces, rather than a brave militia 

commanded by agricultural generals. 

215. What renewed the war, after twenty-one years of peace ? 
The victories of Hannibal, son of Hamilcar, in Spain. 

216. What brilliant feat gave glory to Carthaginian generals? 

The capture of Saguntum, a city of great strength, in alli- 
ance with Home. 

217. What were the results of this achievement? 

Hannibal raised an army of 120,000 infantry, and 16,000 
cavalry, crossed the Pyrenees and the Alps, and invaded Italy. 

218. What great battle placed Rome in a very critical condition, and 
filled it with consternation ? 

That of Cannse, b. c. 216, when 70,000 Romans were slain, 
and in which Hannibal adopted the tactics of Epaminondas, 
and of E^apoleon in after times. 

219. What prevented Hannibal from advancing on Rome after this 
great victory ? 

The failure of re-enforcements, and the unparalleled heroism 
of the Romans, who called out all their reserves and armed 
even their slaves. 

220. What course did Hannibal pursue ? 

He was forced to maintain himself in a hostile country, 
acting on the defensive, for fifteen years, until recalled to 
Carthage by a change in the fortune of war. 



32 POINTS OF HISTORY, 

221. What disasters turned the war to the advantage of the Ro- 
mans ? 

The invasion of Africa itself by the Romans, under Scipio, 
called Africanus, and the battle of Metaiirus, in which Hasdru- 
bal, brother of Hannibal, was slain, which prevented the junc- 
tion of the Carthaginian forces. 

222. What decisive battle ended the war ? 

That of Zama, gained by Scipio over Hannibal, which 
secured the cession of Spain to the Romans, the surrender of 
the Carthaginian fleet, and a fine for the expenses of the war, 
B. c. 201. 

223. What military enterprise did the Romans engage in after the 
second peace with Carthage, B. C. 201 ? 

The Macedonian war, in consequence of an attack on 
Athens by Philip, which was an ally of Rome. 

224. What was the result of this war ? 

The freedom of some of the Grecian cities, and the curtail- 
ment of the dominion of Philip. 

225. Against what state did the conquering Roman general Flamin- 
ius then turn his arms ? 

Syria, then ruled by Antiochus the Great, great grandson of 
Seleucus, one of Alexander's generals. 

226. What was the pretense of this war ? 

The attempt of Antiochus to recover the Greek cities of 
Asia Minor. 

227. To whom was entrusted the conduct of this war ? 
Scipio Africanus, the conqueror of Hannibal. 



ROME TILL THE REIGN OF THE CyESARS. 33 

228. What battle broke the power of Syria ? 

The battle of Magnesia, b. c. 190, in which Antiochus lost 
50,000 men. 

229. What was the political result of this victory ? 

The annexation of Asia Minor as a province of the Eoman 
Empire. 

230. What became of Scipio ? 

He died in voluntary exile, at the age of fifty, from the 
vexation caused by false charges of corruption. 

231. What became of his rival, Hannibal ? 
He committed suicide in Bithynia. 

232. What battle soon after annihilated the Macedonian power ? 
That of Pydna, b. c. 168, won by ^milius Paulus, IM 

}'ears after the death of Alexander. 

233. What was the political result of this victory ? 
Macedonia and Illyria became Roman provinces. 

234. What remarkable fact was brought to light by the battle of 
Pydna? 

That it was the last battle in which a civilized state con- 
fronted Rome on the footing of equality. 

235. What very wicked king gained an infamous immortality at this 
period ? 

Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, a bitter persecutor of 
the Jews. 

236. What Jewish heroes delivered their country from the tyranny of 
this monarch ? 

Judas Maccabeus and his brothers, whose exploits are nar- 
rated by Josephus and in the Apocrypha. 



34 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

237. What very illustrious Roman had great influence at Rome be- 
tween the second and third Punic wars ? 

CatOj the censor, who insisted that Carthage must be de- 
stroyed. 

238. Was the renewal of the war a political necessity ? 

No, it was a political crime, since Carthage gave no cause 
of offense. 

239. Could Carthage have made a successful resistance ? 
Probably not, but she might have prolonged her existence 

had slie not been compelled to destroy her timber and mate- 
rials for a new fleet. 

240. How large was Carthage on the renewal of the war, after fifty 
years of peace ? 

She had 700,000 people, and 300 dependent cities, and 
200,000 stand of arms, and 2000 military engines. 

241. How long did Carthage resist ? 

Three years, but yielded at last to the genius of Scipio, 
after losing more than three-quarters of the population, b. c. 
146. 

242. What great conquest soon followed the reduction of Carthage ? 
That of Spain, inhabited by Celtic races, with whom the 

Komans had been at war for a century. 

243. Who was the conqueror of Spain ? 

Scipio JEmilianus, the conqueror of Carthage. 

244. What memorable siege led to the conquest of Spain ? 
That of ]^umantia, b. c. 133, a city deemed impregnable. 

245. What marked the internal history of Rome during the Punic, 
Macedonian, and Syrian wars ? 

Great privileges were gained by the people, and plebeians 



ROME TILL THE REIGN OF THE CMSARS. 35 

were admitted to the senate, on account of the great ojfices to 
which they had been elected. 

246. What other class of people had greatly increased ? 
The slaves, who were chiefly captives taken in war. 

247. Who attempted to make radical changes in the constitution ? 
Tiberius and Caius Gracchus, of an illustrious patrician 

family. 

248. What law did Tiberius Gracchus propose ? 

That the public lands, then occupied without remuneration, 
should be sold in small lots to the people. 

249. With what result ? 

It inflamed the jealousy and avarice of the patricians, who 
raised a tumult, in which Tiberius was slain. 

250. What law did Caius Gracchus propose? 

A change in the manner of voting, which gave increased 
power to the people. 

251. What other change did Caius Gracchus propose? 

A law which increased the power of the Equites, originally 
horsemen, or knights, but who had become a great moneyed 
class. 

252. What was the effect of the various laws of the Gracchi ? 

To weaken the power of the aristocracy, who had held 
supreme power since the expulsion of the kings, and in the 
most heroic j)enod of Roman history. 

253. What class of men appeared at this period ? 

Political demagogues, frequently aristocrats, who used the 



36 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

people, whom tliey bought, or influenced by eloquence, for 
their own political advancement. 

254. For whom did these demagogues prepare the way? 
For the usurpation of Sulla and Caesar. 

255. What distinguished Greek astronomer flourished at the close of 
the Punic wars ? 

Hipparchus of Alexandria, who discovered the Precession 
of the Equinoxes. 

256. What Greek historian was his contemporary ? 

Polybius, to whom modern historians are much indebted. 

257. What Roman poets lived at this period ? 

Ennius and Terence, who were the harbingers of Roman 
literature. 

258. What marked domestic Hfe at the close of the Punic wars? 
The introduction of eastern superstitions, and the worship 

of the various gods of the conquered nations. 

259. What great public works were undertaken at this period ? 
Several of the aqueducts, the draining of the Pontine 

Marshes, and the erection of many splendid temples. 

260. After the fall of Carthage, what was the most important war of 
the Romans ? 

The Numidian war, the heroes of which were Metellus and 
Caius Marius. 

261. What was brought to light by this war ? 

The venality of the government, the ambition of military 
chieftains, and the growing ascendency of demagogues. 



ROME TILL THE REIGN OF THE CAESARS. 37 

262. What great danger menaced the Roman republic after the Nu- 
midian war ? 

The hostile incursions of the Cimbri and Teutones, b. c. 105, 
Germanic tribes, more warlike than any of the barbarians with 
whom the Romans ever fought. 

263. What gave Rome serious alarm ? 

The battle of Aransio, beyond the Alps, in which the 
Eomans were defeated with the loss of 80,000 men. 

264. Who rescued Rome from these barbarians ? 

Caius Marius, a rough general, who had arisen from the 
plebeian ranks, and first distinguished himself in the Numidian 
war. 

265. What decisive battle pushed back the tide of barbaric invasion 
for several generations ? 

That of Yercillse, fought on Italian soil. 

266. What was the next war of the Romans ? 

The social war, e.g. 90, arising from the revolt of the 
Italian states, because the right of franchise was denied them. 

267. What great general became distinguished in this war ? 
Sulla, who had fought under Marius and Metellus. 

268. What great political change was brought about by this war ? 
The bestowal of political franchise on all the people of 

Italy. 

269. What marked political history after this social war ? 

The rivalry between Marius and Sulla for the command of 
the Mithridatic war and ascendency in the city of Eome. 

270. What caused the Mithridatic war ? 

A combination of the eastern provinces to shake off the 



38 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

yoke of Kome, under the leadership of Mithridates, king of 
Pontus. 

271. What was remarkable about Mithridates ? 

He was an accomplished hero, so learned that he could 
administer justice in twenty-two different languages, and so 
"skillful that he could drive sixteen horses in the chariot races. 

272. What were his military resources ? 

An army of 250,000 infantry and 40,000 cavalry, drawn 
from the contributions of the various states which he occupied, 
including Macedonia, Greece, and Thrace. 

273. To whom was the Mithridatic war intrusted ? 

To Sulla, who completely subdued the eastern prince, and 
forced from him a contribution of 20,000 talents, twice as much 
as the Athenians had hoarded for the PelopOnnesian war. 

274. What was the result of the brilliant successes of Sulla ? 

An unbounded military eclat^ which excited the envy of 
Marius, and produced a civil war between his partisans and 
those of Sulla. 

275. Who was the victor? 

Sulla, who became dictator, and inaugurated a reign of 
terror. 

276. Did he attempt to overturn the constitution ? 

No, but threw all his influence to uphold the senate and 
the aristocratic institutions of the state, and then retired, volun- 
tarily, to private life and to pleasure. 

277. What disturbances, after the death of Sulla, B. c. 78, marked the 
republic ? 

The servile war, a rising of the slaves, under Spartacus, who 



ROME TILL THE REIGN OF THE CjESARS. 39 

were greatly oppressed, and who were used in gladiatorial 
shows. 

278. Who put down this rebellion? 

Pompey and Crassns, in reward for which Pompey ob- 
tained the command of an immense fleet to put down the 
pirates of the Mediterranean, and then the command of an 
army against Mithridates, who had again rallied. 

279. What success had Pompey in the east ? 

He totally defeated Mithridates, the most powerful orien- 
tal conqueror since Cyrus. 

280. What political results did these successes secure ? 

The addition of Syria to the Roman provinces, and Roman 
ascendency over Phoenicia and Palestine. 

281. To what did Pompey aspire after these brilliant services? 
The supreme control of the Roman republic. 

282. Who foiled him in these ambitious projects ? 

Caius Julius Caesar, whose brilliant victories in Gaul, whicli 
he added to the provinces, more than eclipsed those of Pompey 
in the east. 

283. What added to the popularity of Csesar ? 

His popular manners, eloquent speeches, extravagant mag- 
nificence, and opposition to the aristocracy, to wliom he by 
birth belonged. 

284. What great man at Rome beheld the rivalry and ambition of 
Cassar and Pompey with serious alarm ? 

Marcus Tullius Cicero, the most accomplished man iu 
Roman annals, and one of the most virtuous and patriotic. 



40 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

285. What distinguished services did this great orator and statesman 
render his country ? 

His defeat of the conspiracy of Catiline, when consul ; his 
prosecution of Yerres, the corrupt governor of Sicily ; his up- 
right administration of a Roman province, and his defence of 
the Roman constitution. 

286. What services did he render to civilization and to posterity. 

His orations, essays, letters, and learned treatises, which en- 
riched the Latin language, and which have proved invaluable 
in the work of classical education for 2000 years. 

287. Who shared with Ccesar and Pompey a monopoly of political 
power ? 

Crassus, the richest nobleman of his age, but who died in 
an expedition against Parthia. 

288. After the death of Crassus, who formed a triumvirate with Caesar 
and Pompey, what is memorable in the history of Rome ? 

The civil war between the adherents of Csesar and Pompey, 
one party bent on revolution and the other on the conservation 
of the aristocratic constitution. 

289. What decisive battle destroyed the hopes of the aristocratic 
party ? 

The battle of Pharsalia, b. c. 48, in which Pompey was 
defeated. 

290. What course did the conqueror then pursue ? 

He defeated Pompey's adherents in Africa, and then re- 
turning to Pome, seized the reins of government as perpetual 
dictator. 

291. How long did he reign supreme? 

Only a short time, being assassinated by Brutus, Cassius, 
and other senators, b. c. 44. 



ROME TILL THE REIGN OF THE CAESARS. 4 1 

292. What resulted from his death ? 

Another civil war, in which the friends of the old consti- 
tution rallied around Brutus and Cassius in Macedonia and 
Syria, and Sextus Pompey in Sicily, against the triumvirate 
composed of Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus. 

293. What battle decided the fortunes of the republic ? 
That of Philippi in Thrace ? 

294. What course did the successful triumvirs then pursue ? 

They massacred all their enemies, including Cicero, and 
then quarreled among themselves. 

295. What battle established imperialism in the person of Octavius, 
grandson of Julius Csesar ? 

That of Actium, b. c. 31, in which Antony was defeated, 
although the ablest of all Caesar's generals, from his infatuated 
love for Cleopatra. 

296. What was the title which Octavius assumed ? 
That of Imperator. 

297. How was he enabled to reign supreme, since he did not destroy 
the old forms of the republic ? 

By uniting in himself all the great offices of state, by 
which he controlled the army, the finances, religious institu- 
tions, the senate, the courts, and the assemblies of the people. 

298. How large was the empire over which Octavius reigned su- 
preme ? 

It embraced Italy, Spain, Gaul, Sicily, Africa, Egypt, Syria, 
Asia Minor, Greece, Macedonia and Illyricum — nearly the 
whole civilized world, with a population of 120 millions. 



42 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

299. How would the civilization of the Romans compare with the 
civilization of modern states and empires ? 

In a material point of view, it was nearly equal to our own, 
witli tlie exception of our mechanical inventions and scientific 
discoveries, and, in the fine arts, it was superior. 

300. What may be said of the ancient civilization in a moral point of 
view ? 

Great corruption in public and private life, abandonment 
to pleasure, and devotion to money making. 

301. What part of the population were slaves ? 

About one lialf, and these slaves were treated with brutal 
cruelty. 

302. What were some of the most popular forms of pleasure? 
Gladiatorial shows and combats, chariot races, theatrical 

amusements, banquets, and demoralizing and extravagant 
spectacles. 

303. What great statesmen ruled the empire under Octavius, called 
Augustus ? 

Maecenas and Agrippa, who were patrons of learning and art. 

304. What gave great dclat to the reign of Augustus ? 

The constellation of literary men, among whom were the 
poets Yirgil, Horace, and Ovid, the historians Livy and Yarro 
and the philosopher Strabo. 

305. What services did Octavius render the empire? 

He promoted peace, order, law, literature, and material 
prosperity. He also erected magnificent public edifices. 

306. What transcendent event took place during the prosperous and 
peaceful reign of Augustus ? 

The birth of Jesus Christ in Judaea, then ruled by kings 
and governors under tlie protection of Rome. 



ROME TILL THE REIGN OF THE CESAR S. 43 

307. What was the state of the Roman world on the birth of Christ ? 
A state of general peace and tranquillity, whicli favored the 
growth and spread of the new religion. 

References.— Lord's Ancient History, Niebuhr's Lectures on Roman History, Momm- 
seu's History of Rome, Plutarch's Lives, Livy, Caesar's Commentaries, Cicero's Orations, 
Arnold's Rome, Fronde's Life of Cicsar, Rollin's Ancient History, Smith's Ancient His- 
tory, Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, Life of Hortensius. 



CHAPTER V. 
The Eoman Empieb undeb the C^saes. 
308. Who succeeded Octavius to the throne of the civilized world ? 
Tiberius, his stepson, adopted also by him as Ms heir ; an 
able administrator of the empire, but jealous and tyranmcal. 
309 Who was the most eminent Roman general at this time ? 
Germanicus, nephew of Tiberius, who fought against the 
German barbarians. 

310. What minister had great influence in the government ? 
Seianus, prefect of the Prsetorian guards, the favorite sol- 
diers of the emperor, whose business it was to protect the city. 
31 1 By whom was Tiberius succeeded A. D. 37 ? 
Caius Cissar, called Caligula, son of Germanicus, and great 
grandson of Augustus, famous for his cruelty and debauchery. 

3,2. How did the Romans get rid of the tyrants and monsters who 
reigned over them ? 

By assassination, as in oriental monarchies. Caligula was 
assassinated after a reign of four years. 

313 Who was the next emperor ? 

Claudius, an old man, elevated by the Pr^torian guards, 
who hoped to use him as a tool. 

314 What noted event occurred in his reign? 

The conquest of Britain and the complete defeat of Carac- 
tacus, the British hero. 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE UNDER THE CM BARS. 45 

315. What infamous women obtained in this reign a place in history ? 
Messalina, wife of Claudius, and Agrippina, daughter of 

Germanicus, whose wickedness was atrocious and unique. 

316. Who succeeded Claudius, destroyed by assassination? 

E"ero, son of Agrippina, a. d. 54, who killed his mother and 
his wife, and was a monster of cruelty. 

317. What eminent philosopher lived in this reign ? 

Seneca, tutor and minister of Nero, celebrated for his ethi- 
cal writings, but who was assassinated by the emperor. 

318. What other eminent men were his contemporaries ? 
Quintilian, the rhetorician and critic ; Gallus, Martial and 

Lucan, the poets ; Demetrius, the cynical philosopher ; Plutarch, 
the biographer ; and Josephus, the Jewish historian. 

319. What great public work marked the reign of Nero ? 

The palace of the Csesars, surrounded with a triple portico 
1000 feet in length, overlaid with gold and adorned with pre- 
cious marbles. It covered, with its gardens, one of the hills of 
Home. 

320. What marked the death of Nero, destroyed by assassination 
A. D. 68? 

The extinction of the Julian line, or the family of Julius 
Caesar, and the elevation to the empire of soldiers of fortune 
by the Praetorian guards. 

321. Who was the first noted emperor after the extinction of the 
Julian line ? 

Titus Flavins Yespasianus, made emperor by the army at 
the close of the Jewish war. 



4^ POINTS OF HISTORY. 

322. What political event marked his reign ? 

The destruction of Jerusalem, after a siege of unparalleled 
obstinacy and horror, and the final dispersion of the Jews. 

323. What great architectural works were erected by this emperor ? 
The Flavian amphitheatre, or Coliseum, 622 feet long and 

513 wide, in the form of an ellipse, which accommodated 
87,000 spectators, and the baths of Titus, nearly as stupendous. 

324. Who succeeded Vespasian ? 

His son Titus, who reigned only two and a half years, and 
was succeeded by his brother Domitian — a miserable tyrant. 

325. What marked the reign of Domitian ? 

The final conquest of Britian by Agricola, and a bloody 
persecution of the Christians. 

326. What good fortune happened to the empire after the assassina- 
tion of Domitian A. D. 96 ? 

A succession of five good emperors, during whose reigns 
the empire reached its culminating point of glory and pros- 
perity. 

327. Who was the first of these good emperors 1 
Nerva, soon succeeded by Trajan. 

328. What marked the brilliant reign of Trajan ? 

The conquest of Dacia, which was added to the provinces, 
the erection of the Forum Trajanum, and the Basilica Ulpia, 
and a constellation of learned men. 

329. Who were the more remarkable of these men ? 

Juvenal and Martial, poets ; Pliny and Epictetus, philoso- 
phers ; and Suetonius, the historian. 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE UNDER THE CJESARS. 47 

330. What blotted the fame of Trajan ? 

A furious persecution of the Christians, then rising into 
historical importance. 

331. Who succeeded Trajan A. D. 115 ? 

Hadrian, best known for his architectural works, among 
which were the Temple of Yenus, the Mausoleum of the 
C^sars, now the Castle of St. Angelo, and the villa at Tivoli. 

332. Who succeeded Hadrian ? 

Antoninus Pius, a. d. 138, in whose rpign flourished Galen, 
the physician ; Ptolemy, the astronomer ; Appian, the historian ; 
Justin, the martyr, and Herodes Atticus, the elegant patrician. 

333. Who succeeded Antoninus Pius? 

The most illustrious of all the emperors, after Augustus, 
Marcus Aurelius, a. d. 161, whose reign was marked by a gen- 
eral union of the Germanic barbarians for the invasion of the 
Eoman world, but who were driven back. 

334. Who is the first great historic name after Marcus Aurelius ? 
Septimius Severus, the 18th emperor, a great general, who 

fought the Parthians in the east, and the Caledonians in Bri- 
tain. 

335. Who were the most distinguished learned men of his time, the 
latter part of the third century ? 

Clemens of Alexandria, a renowned theologian, and Origen, 
the greatest scholar of the early church. 

336. Who was the most noted emperor after Septimius Severus ? 
Alexander Severus, a. d. 222, also a great general, who 

fought against the Persians and the western barbarians. 



48 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

337. What great men adorned his reign ? 

Ulpian, the most famous of the Roman jurists, and Dion 
Cassius the historian. 

338. What marked the history of the church in the third century ? 
Repeated and cruel persecutions — the age of martyrs, amongj 

wliom was Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, a great theologian. 

339. What marl^ed the empire in this century? 

Constant wars with external enemies — with the Persians on 
the east, and the Goths on the west, a Germanic people who in- 
vaded Greece and plundered Athens. 

340. What great general arrested the aggressions of the Persians and 
Goths } 

The Emperor Aurelian, who, among other memorable acts, 
took Palmyra, and led Queen Zenobia as a captive to Rome, 
A. D. 273. 

341. What did the public dangers create ? 

A succession of warlike emperors, who arrested for a time, 
the invasions of the barbarians. 

342. Who succeeded these emperors ? 

Diocletian, one of the ablest of all the emperors, who, how- 
ever, made the mistake of dividing the empire, in order more 
easily to repel the barbaric invaders. 

343. Who again united the empire ? 

Constantine the Great, a successful general, who became 
emperor a. d. 306. 

344. What has given to Constantine a great name in history ? 

His conversion to Christianity, when persecutions of the 
Christians stopped, and the church was united to the state. 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE UNDER THE CAESARS. 49 

345. What memorable council took place under the auspices of Con- 
stantine ? 

That of Nice, a. d. 325, composed of 318 bishops and 636 
presbyters, which settled the creed of the church. 

346. What distinguished theologian governed this council ? 
Athanasiiis, afterwards bishop of Alexandria, who was the 

champion of the orthodox party, against Arius, who assailed 
the doctrine of the Trinity. 

347. What great religious controversies marked the age, besides that 
pertaining to the Trinity ? 

Those pertaining to the celebration of Easter and the Lord's 
Supper. 

348. What great external event marked the reign of Constantine ? 
The foundation of Constantinople, as the new capital of 

the empire. 

349. Who governed the empire at his death ? 

It was divided among his three sons, but was again united 
under Constantius, who spent his life in incessant wars. 

350. Who succeeded Constantius? 

Julian, called the apostate, who attempted to restore pagan- 
ism, but who was a learned and accomplished emperor. 

351. Under whom was Christianity again restored as the religion of 
the empire ? 

Jovian, chief of the imperial household, made emperor by 
the army on the death of Julian. 

352. Under whom did the division of the empire again take place ? 
Yalentinian, who gave the empire of the east to his brother 

Valens, retaining the west for himself. 



50 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

353. What marked the reigns of these emperors ? 
Perpetual wars with the Germanic nations. 

354. What nation among these Germans gained the greatest suc- 
cesses ? 

The Goths, who defeated the emperor Yalens in the most 
disastrous battle in Eoman annals, when 60,000 infantry and 
6,000 cavalry were slain. 

355. Who was the first historic name among these Goths? 
Hermanneric, whose dominions extended from the Danube 

to the Baltic. 

356. Who restored once again, and for the last time, the glories of the 
falling empire, and reunited the whole empire under his own rule ? 

Theodosius the Great, who became emperor, a. d. 379, at 
the age of thirty-three, one of the most illustrious sovereigns 
who ever lived. 

357. What great bishop was contemporary with Theodosius ? 
Ambrose of Milan, who gave great lustre to the episcopal 

dignity. 

358. What bishop was even more illustrious than he in those days of 
turbulence ? 

Augustine of Hippo, the great theologian of the church. 

359. What particular services did he render to the church ? 

He defended the Pauline theology against Pelagius, a 
British monk of great attainments and subtlety of genius, and 
against the Manichseans, who attempted to engraft the doc- 
trines of Persian philosophers on Christianity. 



THE ROM Ah' EMPIRE UNDER THE C^SARS. 5r 

360. What were the doctrines which Augustine defended with re- 
markable success ? 

Those especially which pertained to the servitude of the 
will and the efficacy of divine grace, which Pelagius denied. 

361. What great churchman, about this time, gave organization to 
monastic Hfe and institutions ? 

Basil, a recluse of high birth and great learning, who laid 
down the four great rules of poverty, chastity, obedience, and 
silence. 

362. What was the spirit of monastic life which spread over the east? 
It was a protest against the Epicureanism and sensuality of 

the age, and aimed at a higher religious life. 

363. What other great churchman made a mark on ecclesiastical 
history at this miserable period ? 

Jerome, a high-born Eoman, of vast learning, who adopted 
monastic seclusion, and translated the Bible into the Latin lan- 
guage, called the Yulgate. 

364. What distinguished Roman lady was the friend of Jerome? 
Paula, who owned a whole city, and who devoted herself 

to the duties of monastic life. 

365. What distinguished missionary was his contemporary ? 
Uphilas, who translated the Bible into the Gothic language, 

and converted many of the barbarians in Moesia. 

366. What distinguished Gothic leader arose after the death of 
Theodosius ? 

Alaric, king of the Yisi- or West Goths, who occupied 
Thrace. 



52 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

367. Under what emperors did the Goths renew their ravages ? 
Arcadius and Honorius, sons of Tlieodosius, who again di- 
vided the empire into the east and the west. 

368. What great bishop lived at this time in Constantinople ? 
Chrysostom, the most eloquent preacher of th-e early 

church. 

369. Who kept the Goths at bay in the reign of Honorius ? 
Stilicho, one of the last of the great Roman generals, but 

who was assassinated from imperial jealousy. 

370. What great calamity happened to the empire after the death of 
Stilicho ? 

The siege, fall, and sack of Rome, by Alaric, leader of the 
Goths, A. D. 410. 

371. What followed the fall of Rome? 

The settlement of the Franks in Gaul, the Goths in Spain 
and Italy, and the Yandals in Africa. 

372. What became of Britain 1 

The Roman legions were withdrawn, and the island was 
exposed to the future depredations of the Germanic races. 

373. What barbaric prince took and ravaged Rome a second time, 
A. D. 455 ? 

Genseric, king of the Yandals, whose seat of empire was 
Carthage, which he took a. d. 439. 

374. What great Roman bishop was the contemporary of Genseric ? 
Leo the First, who laid the foundation of the Papacy, by 

asserting that he was the successor of St. Peter, to whom Christ 
had given preeminence among the apostles. 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE UNDER THE C^SARS. S3 

375. What other barbaric race overran the fallen empire ? 

The Huns, a Sclavonic people, under Attila, called tlie 
Scourge of God. 

376. What great battle delivered Europe from these invaders ? 

The battle of Chalons, gained by Aetins, the imperial gen- 
eral, in which 300,000 were slain on both sides, one of the 
most bloody battles of all history. 

377. What did Attila, after this great defeat, meditate ? 

The invasion of Italy, from which he was diverted by a 
large bribe and the hand of the princess Honoria. 

378. Who was the last of the Roman emperors of the west ? 
Angustulus, a Pannonian, dethroned by Odoacer, king of 

the Heruli, a. d. 476. 

379. Why did not the Romans make a more effectual resistance to the 
barbarians ? 

Because all real vigor had fled, and the mechanism of gov- 
ernment was worn ont. 

380. What were then the primary causes of the ruin of the empire ? 
The vices of sensuality, sloth, and egotism, which prepared 

the way for violence. 

381. Why did not literature save the empire? 

Because it was corrupted, and had ceased to be a power, 
and had no freshness or originality. 

382. What was fatal to literature ? 

The imperialism of the Csesars, which was hostile to genius 
and independence of mind. 



54 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

383. Why did not art arrest the ruin ? 

Because it was prostituted to please tlie perverted tastes of 
a godless generation. 

384. Why did not philosophy prove a conservative force ? 
Because it Bad also degenerated, like literature, and was 

Epicurean and material. 

385. Why did not Christianity save the empire ? 

Because it was not worth saving. It had no material to 
work upon. It was sent to save the race and not a rotten 
empire. Moreover, it had become itself corrupted. 

386. In the general wreck, what survived of the glory of Rome ? 
The Latin language and literature ; jurisprudence, the in- 
digenous science of the Bomans, and poetical recollections. 

387. What succeeded to the destruction of the empire ? 

A long night of 1000 years, the shadows of ignorance and 
superstition, and the complete dismemberment of society — the 
destruction which was necessary before there could be a new 
creation. 

References.— Sallust,Livy, Tacitus, Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars, Polybius, Caesar's 
Commentaries, Cicero's Letters, The Satires of Lucian, Mommsen's History of Rome, 
Niehuhr's History of Rome, Arnold, Merivale'| History of the Emperors, Froude's Caesar. 



CHAPTER YI. 

The Middle Ages to the Crusades. 

388. On the fall of the Roman empire, what power is of greatest his- 
torical interest ? 

That wliich was established by the bishops of Rome, a spir- 
itual power. 

389. Who of these bishops first deserves the attention of students, 
and why ? 

Innocent the First, a. d. 402 to 417, because he claimed 
that Christ gave to St. Peter a spiritual jurisdiction over the 
whole church, and that he, as his successor, inherited this juris- 
diction. 

390. What was the effect of this claim ? 

It made the bishop of Rome the greatest of ecclesiastical 
dignitaries, because it was supposed he ruled by divine right. 

391. Who was the next great pope? 

Leo I., whose pontificate commenced a. d. 440. 

392. What made him distinguished ? 

His revival of the claim of Innocent, and a noble defence 
of the doctrines of the church. 

393. Who was a still greater pope ? 

Gregory the Great, a. d. 590-604, who sent missionaries to 
convert the Saxons in England, and who established the 
Gregorian Chant. 



$6 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

394. Who were the Saxons ? 

One of the Germanic tribes, wlio first invaded England, 
A. D. 449, under Hengest and Horsa, and founded the kingdom 
of Kent, after the Koman armies were withdrawn from 
Britain. 

395. What Saxon princes succeeded Hengest and Horsa in the inva- 
sion of Britain ? 

Ella, who founded the kingdom of Sussex a. d. 490, and 
Cerdric, a. d. 519, who established himself in Wessex — the 
progenitor of the Saxon kings. 

396. Who finally united the Saxons under one monarchy ? 
Egbert, king of Wessex, in the year 824, about 387 years 

after the first invasion of England by the Saxons. 

397. What marked English history under the reigns of the various 
petty Saxon kings, called the Heptarchy ? 

Perpetual wars between the various princes, and the grow- 
ing ascendency of the Christian clergy, who were favored by 
these princes. 

398. What was the most powerful of the Gothic kingdoms of Europe, 
during the Saxon heptarchy ? 

That of the Franks, which embraced about a third of 
modern France. 

399. Who was the first noted king who ruled over these Franks ? 
Clovis, converted to Christianity a. d. 496, with 3,000 

followers, through the instrumentality of his wife Clotilda, 
who opposed Arianism, and formed a close alliance with the 
pope. 

400. Where was the seat of the Frankish power } 

Paris, which became under the successors of Clovis, called 



THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE CRUSADES. $7 

the Merovingians, a considerable city. The Frankish cities of 
Metz, Soissons, and Orleans were also important. 

401. What may be said of the Merovingian kings? 

That, on the whole, they Avere impotent, cruel, and de- 
baiiclied, not one of whom, after Clovis, was worthy of histori- 
cal notice. 

402. What other Germanic nation, which settled in France on the dis- 
solution of the Roman empire, became powerful ? 

The Bnrgundians, wdio occupied Alsace and Lorraine, 
under Gundicar, a. d. 413. 

403. What Gothic nation occupied the south of France ? 

The Visi-Goths, whose seat was Toulouse, and who were 
distinguished, on their conversion to Christianity, as the de- 
fenders of Arianism. 

404. What great monarch reigned in Constantinople when the Franks 
were estabUshing their monarchy ? 

Justinian, who reigned from 527 to 565 a. d. 

405. For what was he famous ? 

For the codification of the Roman, or civil law, with the 
aid of Tribonian, an eminent jurist, in the shape of the 
" Code," " Pandects " and " Institutes," and for the erection of 
the church of St. Sophia. 

406. What great modern industry took its rise at this time at Constan- 
tinople ? 

The manufacture of silk, previously confined to China, and 
brought to Europe by Persian merchants. 

407. What powerful oriental monarch reigned at this period ? 
Chrosoes, king of Persia, the last of the dynasty called 

Sassanides. 



58 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

408. What great power arose in Spain during the reigns of the Mero- 
vingian kings ? 

That of the Saracens, or followers of Mohammed, who con- 
quered the Goths, and established their rule over the penin- 
sula. 

409. Who was Mohammed ? 

An Arabian prophet, born at Mecca, A. d. 569, whose chief 
doctrine was the Unity of God. 

410. By what means were his doctrines spread ? 

By arousing the martial and fanatical passions of his coun- 
trymen, so that they established a powerful empire in the east, 
when the west was sunk in barbarism. 

411. How far did Saracenic conquests extend? 

To India in the east and Spain in the west, including Ara- 
bia, Persia, Syria, Egj^pt, the seat of empire being finally estab- 
lished at Bagdad on the Tigris. 

412. Who arrested the conquests of the Saracens in Europe ? 

Charles Martel, mayor of the palace to the last of the Mero- 
vingians, who gained a great victory at Tours, a. d. Y32, over 
Abderahman, the Saracen caliph of Spain, which resulted in 
the expulsion of the Saracens from France. 

413. Who succeeded Charles Martel as virtual ruler of France } 

His son Pepin, who deposed Childeric III., the last of the 
Merovingians, and was crowned king, a. d. 752. 

414. For what was he distinguished ? 

For his wars against the Saxons and Aquitanians, which re- 
sulted in the annexation of Aquitania to the kingdom of 
France — the old territory of the Yisi- Goths. 



THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE CRUSADES. 59 

415. What very great man succeeded him, A. D. 768? 

His son Charles, called the Great, the most illustrious 
monarch of the Middle Ages. 

416. To what did he aspire ? 

To revive the western empire, and unite Europe under his 
sway. 

417. For what was his reign distinguished ? 

Perpetual wars, the most important of which were against 
the Saxons, the predominating power of Germany, by which 
Germauy was united to his empire. 

418. What were some of the most important of his other wars ? 
Those against the Lombards, by which northern Italy was 

ioined to his dominions, and those against the Avars, a tribe of 
Huns, who were driven back from the reahns of civihzation. 

419. In what did the greatness of Charlemagne consist, next to his 
mihtary successes ? 

His enlightened efforts to civilize his subjects, establislimg 
schools, codifying laws, fostering all Christian institutions, and 
allying himself with the clergy. 

420 What was the extent of his empire when he died, A. D. 814? 

It embraced France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and 
a part of Spain. 

421. What became of this great empire after the death of Charle- 
magne ? 

It was divided among his three sons, and afterwards was 
again subdivided, so that in fifty years it was spht up uito 
several kingdoms and dul-:edoms. 



6o POINTS OF HISTORY. 

422. What empire in the East was in the height of prosperity at this 
epoch ? 

That of the Saracens, under the rule of the Abbassides, at 
Bagdad, the greatest of whom was Haroun al Easchid, the 
contemporary of Charlemagne. 

423. What Gothic king in Spain distinguished himself at this era ? 
Alfonzo II., king of Asturia, who extended his conquests 

over the Saracens to Castile and Leon. 

424. What great calamity disturbed the peace of Europe after the 
death of Charlemagne ? 

The incursions of the Danes — Scandinavian pirates, who in- 
Taded England and inflicted great miseries. 

425. Who rescued England from the Danes and established the Eng- 
lish monarchy ? 

Alfred the Great, a descendant of Egbert, who became king, 
A. D. 871, fifty-seven years after the death of Charlemagne. 

426. What services did Alfred render to the civilization of England ? 
The establishment of seats of learning, trial by jury, wise 

laws, and patronage of the clergy. 

427. What new kingdom arose in Europe about this time ? 

That of Poland, just as Yenice was rising into notice as a 
mercantile state. 

428. On the death of Alfred, A. D. 900, what were the most powerful 
states of Europe ? 

France, under the Carlo vingian kings. Burgundy, Germany, 
Flanders, Tuscany, Bohemia, Denmark and Poland. 

429. Who, among the Carlovingian kings, was famous or rendered 
important services, after the death of Charlemagne ? 

Kot one of them. They were as imbecile as the Mero- 
vingians. 



THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE CRUSADES. 6 1 

430. Who loomed up to the gaze of Europe, as great men, in the 
tenth century ? 

A few ecclesiastics like Dunstan and Odo, arclibishops of 
Canterbury ; Ilincmar, archbishop of E-heims, and a few school- 
men like Erigena. 

431. What marked the tenth century ? 

The multiplication of convents, the rule of priests, and the 
settlement of the Normans in France, under Rollo, and of the 
Danes in England. 

432. When did the Carlovingian dynasty come to an end in France ? 
In 987, when Hugh Capet became king and founded the 

Capetian dynasty. 

433. What contemporary monarch became powerful in Germany ? 
Otho III., grandson of Otho the Great, who was also Idng 

of Italy, who maintained the subserviency of papal to imperial 
authority — the great issue of the tenth century. 

434. What great pope reigned in the beginning of the eleventh 
century ? 

Sylvester 11. , who attempted to revive learning. 

435. What marked the history of England in the eleventh century ? 
The reign of Canute the Dane, the restoration of the Saxon 

line under Edward the Confessor, and the conquest of England 
by William, duke of Normandy. 

436. What decisive battle gave to the Normans the supremacy of 
England ? 

The battle of Hastings, 1066, when Harold was defeated by 
William. 

437. What was the effect of the Norman conquest ? 

It strengthened the power of kings, and depressed the 
Saxon people. 



62 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

438, What occurred in France in the eleventh century, of historical 
importance ? 

Nothing memorable, except the universal passion to make 
pilgrimages to the Holy Land. 

439- What was the most powerful state in Europe in this century ? 
Germany, under the Franconian emperors. 

44c. Who was the most celebrated of these emperors ? 

Henry lY., distinguished for his memorable contest with 
Pope Gregory YII. about the right of investitures, and his 
claim to control the election of the pope. 

441. Who was Gregory VIII. or Hildebrand } 

The most famous of all the popes, and the greatest charac- 
ter, after Charlemagne, of the Middle Ages. 

442. In what did his greatness consist ? 

In attempting to reform the vices of his time, and to raise 
the spiritual above the temporal power. 

443. What did he consider the characteristic vices of the age ? 

The marriage of the clergy, and simony, or the sale of 
ecclesiastical benefices. 

444. Who sold these benefices } 

The princes and nobles, who thus elevated unworthy per- 
sons to places of dignity and trust. 

445. In striving to prevent the sale of benefices what contest ensued ? 
That between the Papal and Imperial powers. 

446. Who was victor in this great contest ? 

Hildebrand, who compelled Henry, in the depth of winter, 



THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE CRUSADES. 63 

in a hair-cloth shirt and with naked feet, to stand for three 
days before the fortress of Canossa, before he would grant 
absolution. 

447. How was Hildebrand enabled to reduce so powerful an adver- 
sary as the Emperor of Germany, who was also king of Italy, to this 
humiliation ? 

By the weapons of excommunication, of which all Europe 
stood in abject awe, since the popes were supposed to hold the 
keys of heaven and hell. 

448. What was the result of this victory, A. D. 1037 ? 

It secured the triumph of spiritual authority over the tem- 
poral powers, and made the popes the greatest potentates of 
Europe. 

449. What remarkable soldier of fortune attracted great attention by 
his exploits in this century ? 

Eobert Guiscard, a !N'orman knight, who succeeded in con- 
quering Apulia and Calabria in Italy, corresponding with the 
modern kingdom of Naples. 

450. What great misfortune befel Christendom in the latter part of 
the eleventh century ? 

The conquest of Jerusalem by the Turks, which was the 
immediate cause of the crusades. 

451. What great literary movement commenced in this century ? 
The rise of the scholastic philosophy, which was a revival 

of the questions which once agitated the Grecian schools. 

452. What was the influence of this movement? 

It reduced traditional dogmas to the scrutiny of reason, so 
that theology and metaphysics were combined. 



64 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

453. What form of philosophy was made to support theology ? 
The Aristotelian philosophy, which gave aciiteness to rea- 
soning, but did not enlarge the boundaries of knowledge. 

454. Where was this scholastic philosophy taught ? 

In the rising universities, the chief of which were Paris 
and Oxford. 

455. What eminent scholastic flourished in the latter part of the 
eleventh century ? 

Anselm, abbot of Bee, in Normandy, afterwards archbishop 
of Canterbury. 

456. What was one of the great features of this period ? 

The flourishing state of monastic institutions, and the erec- 
tion of abbey churches. 

457. What can be said in favor of monastic institutions in the Middle 
Ages? 

That convents and monasteries were abodes of superstitious 
piety, beehives of industry, retreats from misery, and a shelter 
for the learned and religious ; that they afforded spiritual con- 
solation to an iron age, and were a counterpoise to the power 
of nobles. 

458. Who instituted monastic life in Europe ? 

Benedict, in the middle of the sixth century, who adopted 
the rules of Basil, and whose monastry on Mount Casino be- 
came the model of the Benedictine houses. 

459. What were some of the most famous monasteries in Europe, of 
the Benedictine rule ? 

That of Cluny in Burgundy, St. Denis near Paris, St. Gall 
in Germany, and Westminster, Canterbury, and Glastonl)ury in 
England, all of which were enormously ri(;h and poweriiil. 



THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE CRUSADES. 65 

460. How did the monasteries of Europe become rich ? 

They were richly endowed by princes and nobles. They 
owned nearly one-half of the wealth of Christendom, both 
money and large landed estates. 

461. What was the number of the monks in the Middle Ages } 
From 100,000 to 150,000 in various countries. 

462. What was their general character ? 

They are accused of gluttony, pride, and avarice, but they 
were the most learned and excellent people of their time. 

463. What was Feudalism ? 

A virtual contract between a lord and his vassals, by which 
the latter received protection and rendered military service, 
among other things. 

464. How extensive was the feudal system ? 

It extended over all Europe, so that every country was 
covered with castles, as well as convents, in which the baronial 
lords lived, while the peasants, their vassals, tilled the land in 
poverty, hardship, and ignorance. 

465. When was feudalism generally established ? 

About the ninth and tenth centuries, when allodial tenure 
gave place to feudal. 

466. What was the difference between allodial and feudal tenure ? 
The allodialist owned the land himself, but was exposed to 
robbers, while the feudal serf, parted with his land to a pow- 
erful master for the sake of security and protection. 

467. What were the advantages of feudalism in the Middle Ages ? 
It secured peace and order, developed agricultural industry, 



(^ POINTS OF HISTORY. 

and promoted loyalty, patriotism, and chivalry. It rendered 
great wars and conquests impossible. 

468. What were some of its evils ? 

It was hostile to a central power, and favored the oppres- 
sion of the poor by the rich. It divided society into noble 
and ignoble classes. It fostered pride among nobles, and 
ignorance, dependence and servility among peasants. 

469. What effect had feudalism on royalty ? 

It split up kingdoms into principalities and fettered the 
power of kings, and prevented royal combinations and aggran- 
disements. 

KErERENCES.— Hallam's Middle Ages, Michelet's History of France, Guizot's History 
of Civilization, Green's History of England, Neander's Church History, Baronius' Annals, 
Platiua's History of the Popes, Stephens' Essay on Hildebrand, James' Life of Charle- 
magne, Lingard's History of England, Turner's History of Anglo-Saxons, Thierry's History 
of Norman Conquest, Dngdale's Monasticon, Maitland's Dark Ages, Mabillon, Mosheim, 
Lives of the English Saints. 



CHAPTEK YII. 

The Middle Ages, from the Ckusades to the 
Discovery of America. 

470. What was the great external event of the Middle Ages ? 
The crusades. 

471. What were the crusades ? 

A series of aggressive and fanatical wars wliicli Europe 
waged against Asia, to recover the Holy Sepulchre from the 
Mohammedans, lasting about two centuries. 

472. What was the immediate cause of these expeditions ? 

The persecutions to which the pilgrims to Jerusalem were 
subjected from the Mohammedans. 

473. Why did pilgrims undertake the long and painful journey to the 
Holy Land ? 

It was supposed that this pilgrimage would expiate their 
sins, one of the forms of penance which entered into mediaeval 
piety. 

474. Who first set in motion warlike expeditions to avenge the wrongs 
of the Christians ? 

Peter of Amiens, called the Hermit, commissioned by Pope 
Urban II. to preach a crusade. 

475. Who led the first army, in the first crusade, after the Pope him- 
self, at the Council of Clermont, 1095, urged the monarchs of Europe to 
embark in it ? 

Peter, who marched with a disorderly rabble of 273,000 
men, most of whom perished by tlie way. 



68 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

476. Who led a more powerful army ? 

The princes of Europe, with 500,000 men, under the com- 
mand of Godfrey de Bouillon, Hugh, Count of Yermandois, 
Raymond, Count of Toulouse, Bohemond, Prince of Tarentum, 
Tancred, Count of Flanders, and Robert, Duke of Normandy — 
the flower of the European chivalry. 

477. What were the results of this crusade ? 

A series of blunders and misfortunes. Only 10,000 cru- 
saders lived to return. 

478. What consoled Europe for the loss of so many men ? 

The conquest of Jerusalem, and the establishment of a 
Latin kingdom, under Godfrey (1099). 

479. Who reigned in England during this crusade ? 
William Bufus and Henry L, sons of the conqueror. 

480. What events marked English history during these reigns, from 
1087-1135? 

The union of England with Normandy, the revision of the 
Saxon laws, the building of Westminster Hall and of the 
Tower of London. 

481. What marked the history of Germany during this first crusade ? 
The commencement of the contest between the Guelphs 

and Ghibelines, two parties, the former being the adherents 
of papal supremacy, and the latter of imperial. 

482. What military orders were established about this time ? 
The Knights Hospitallers and the Knights Templars. 

483. What ecclesiastical quarrel was memorable the first part of the 
twelfth century ? 

That between Abelard and Bernard, of France, which was 



THE CRUSADES TO DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 69 

virtually the revival of the controversy between Pelagius and 
Augustine as to Grace, Free Will, and Predestination, 600 
years before. 

484. Who was Abelard ? 

A great schoolman, celebrated for his lectures and his love 
for Heloise. Pie was accused of rationalism and condemned 
by an ecclesiastical council. 

485. Who formed the second crusade (1147) ? 

St. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, a man of extraordinary 
piety and eloquence, and Pope Eugenius. 

486. Who conducted this crusade ? 

Louis YII. of France and Conrad III., emperor of Ger- 
many. 

487. And with what success ? 

No success at all. 200,000 men perished. 

488. What great French statesman opposed this crusade ? 
Suger, Abbot of St. Denis. 

489. What distinguished man denounced, at this time, the doctrines 
of Rome ? 

Arnold of Brescia, who was burned. 

490. Who reigned in England during the second crusade 1 
Stephen, 1135 to 1154, nephew of Henry I., who usui-ped 

the throne which belonged to Matilda, daughter of Henry I., 
who had married Henry Y. of Germany, and afterwards Geof- 
frey, Count of Anjou. 

491. What was the result of this usurpation ? 

A series of civil wars, which ended in a compromise that 



70 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

Stephen should have the crown during his life, which, on his 
death, should devolve on Henry, son of Matilda and the Count 
of Anjou. 

492. What made Henry II., a very powerful monarch when he came 
to the throne of England in 1154? 

Because, in addition to the English throne, he inherited 
Normandy and Anjou, and by his marriage with Eleanor he 
became the possessor of Guienne and Poitou, which four prov- 
inces were larger than the realm of the king of France. 

493. What marked the reign of Henry II. — 11 54 to 11 89.? 

His famous quarrel with Thomas a Becket, archbishop of 
Canterbury, respecting the rights of the church. 

494. What were the subjects in dispute ? 

Chiefly the jurisdiction of spiritual courts, which Henry 
determined to cripple, since they weakened the royal power, 
and .the claim of the king that no ofiicer of his should be ex- 
communicated without his consent. 

495. What was the result of the quarrel ? 

A Becket was driven out of the kingdom, and afterwards as- 
sassinated, which martrydom, in behalf of the church, strength- 
ened tlie spiritual authority, and kept the Norman kings in 
check for 300 years. 

496. Who opposed the Papal authority at this time } 

Peter Waldo, of Lyons, the founder of the Waldenses. 

497. What marked the history of Continental Europe during the reign 
of Henry II. } 

The foundation of the Carmelite order of monks, the insti- 
tution of the bank of Venice, and the quarrel between Pope 
Alexander and the Emperor Frederick of Germany. 



THE CRUSADES TO DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 7 1 

498. Who succeeded Henry II. of England in 11 89? 
Kicliard I., surnamed Coeur de Leon. 

499. For what was his reign memorable ? 

For the third crusade, undertaken by the great monarchs of 
Europe in person : Richard of England, Philip Augustus of 
France, and Frederick of Germany, who led 300,000 men into 
Palestine, 1189. 

500. What great general opposed the crusaders ? 

Saladin, sultan of Egypt, who had taken Jerusalem from 
the Christians. 

501. What was the result of this crusade ? 

Unfortunate, like the others, although prodigies of valor 
were performed. 

502. What celebrated military order dates to this crusade ? 

The Teutonic order of knights, who founded the Prussian 
state. 

503. What was the result of the fourth crusade, under Baldwin, Earl 
of Flanders ? 

The seizure of Constantinople from the Greek emperor, in 
revenge for his treachery, and the transfer to Venice of the 
bronze horses of Lysippus. 

504. What famous orders of monks arose about this time ? 

The Francescan and the Dominican, instituted by Innocent 
III., the most powerful of all the popes. 

505. What persecution made this pope infamous ^ 

That against the Waldenses and the Albigenses, who main- 
tained that the Scriptures are the only source of religious 
truth, and who rejected the necessity of a special priesthood. 



72 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

506. What general made himself prominent in these persecutions ? 
Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, whose cruelties were 

atrocious. This was the era of bitter persecutions, and of the 
establishment of the Inquisition. 

507. Who succeeded Richard on the English throne ? 

His brother John, 1199, whose reign is memorable for his 
contests with the barons — who extorted from him, at Runny- 
mede, Magna Charta, the foundation of English liberties. 

508. What great monarch was the contemporary of John ? 
Frederick XL, emperor of Germany, distinguished for his 

contests with the popes, and for leading a new crusade. 

509. Who was the leader of the last crusade ? 

Louis IX. of France, called St. Louis, who died in Africa, 

1269; 

510. What were the immediate consequences of the crusades? 
Yery disastrous. Europe was demoralized, and two mil- 
lions of men perished. 

511. What were the ultimate results of the crusades ? 

The arrest of Mohammedan conquests, the weakening of 
the feudal system, the growth of commercial cities, the im- 
pulse given to commerce, the growth of central power, and 
the introduction into Europe of new fruits and vegetables. 

512. What commercial cities arose into great importance in conse- 
quence of the crusades ? 

Yenice, Genoa, Pisa, and Marseilles. 

513. What celebrated league was formed about the period of the last 
crusade ? 

The Hanseatic league, which was a confederacy of the 
northern cities of Europe for commercial purposes. 



THE CRUSADES TO DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 73 

514. What great intellectual movement took place in Europe during 
the latter part of the crusades ? 

The study of philosophy in the rising universities. 

515. Who were the great lights ? 

Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventura, and Dun 
Scotus. 

516. What great poems were composed at this period ? 

Tlie Edda, the sacred book of the Scandinavians, and the 
Song of the Niebelungen Lied among the Germans. 

517. What Venetian distinguished himself by travels in Tartary? 

Marco Polo, who returned with vivid and poetical descrip- 
tions of Zipango, a fertile and wealthy island, supposed to be 
Japan. 

518. Who was Roger Bacon ? 

A great scholar at Oxford, who made interesting experi- 
ments in science. He invented gunpowder. 

519. Where was science, at this period, cultivated with the greatest 
success ? 

In Spain, through the patronage of an enlightened monarch, 
Alphonso X., king of Castile. 

520. What great painter arose in Italy, at this period ? 
Cimabue, who abandoned the servile copying of the artists 

before him, folded his drapery, and gave expression to his 
heads. 

521. When were parliaments first assembled in England ? 
During the long and inglorious reign of Henry III. (1265), 

under whom Normandy and Anjou were ceded to France. 



74 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

522. What violent English monarch succeeded Henry III.; in 1272? 
Edward L, who invaded both Wales and Scotland, and who 

banished the Jews. 

523. What Scottish heroes prevented the conquest of their country ? 
William Wallace and Eobert Bruce. 

524. What German emperor was the contemporary of Edward ? 
Rudolf, the founder of the House of Hapsburg, the present 

reigning house of Austria (1273). 

525. What marked the German emperors during the thirteenth 
century ? 

Incessant wars to control the various Italian states. 

526. What marked the French kings during this century ? 

To establish a strong central power, and get possession of 
the various provinces under foreign rule. 

527. What political event happened in North Germany in 1378, preg- 
nant with future consequences ? 

The submission of Prussia, a small territory, to the Teutonic 
knights. 

528. What eastern power began, at this time, to be dangerous ? 
The power of the Turks, under Othman, the founder of 

their empire. 

529. What important parliamentary act received the sanction of the 
king (1297), Edward I.? 

That no taxes should be raised without the consent of the 
knights, citizens, and burgesses in parliament assembled. 

530. What remarkable pope reigned in the latter part of the thirteenth 
century ? 

Boniface YIII., the most arrogant of all the popes, and wlio 



THE CRUSADES TO DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 75 

attempted to reduce the monarchs of Europe to abject submis- 
sion. He proclaimed a year of jubilee (1300), wliicli drew in- 
numerable pilgrims to Rome and thus enriched him. 

531. What was the great literary event of the closing century? 

The appearance of Dante, the Florentine, and of his immor- 
tal poem, the Divina Commedia, which formed the Italian lan- 
guage, and gave an immense impulse to learning. He was born 
1265 and died 1321. 

532. What great painter in Florence was his contemporary ? 
Giotto, who gave an impulse to art. 

533. What hero adorned Swiss history at this period ? 

William Tell, who it is said killed the Austrian tyrant of 
his country. 

534. What great battle secured the independence of Scotland ? 

The battle of Bannockburn (1314) gained by Robert Bruce 
over Edward II. 

535. W^ho succeeded Edward II,, who was deposed ? 

Edward III. (1327), Prince of Wales, at the age of fifteen, 
one of the greatest of the English kings. 

536. For what is his reign memorable ? 

For his great military successes in France to regain the lost 
provinces, and the improvement of the English law. 

537. What memorable battles were fought ? 

Crecy (1346) and Poictiers (1356), gained by the Black 
Prince, son of Edward III. 

538. What contributed to give to Edward the \actory of Crecy? 
The use of gunpowder, invented by Roger Bacon, but per- 
fected by Schwartz. 



7^ POINTS OF HISTORY, 

539. What may be said of the use of gunpowder in battle ? 

It revolutionized, gradually, the art of war. It made 
modern armies superior to those of the Greeks and Komans. 

540. What order of knighthood did Edward institute ? 

The order of the Garter, which is now one of the most 
eagerly coveted favors which any monarch can bestow, and 
rarely granted except to sovereigns, the leading men of Europe, 
and a few English noblemen of the highest rank. 

541. What other heroes distinguished themselves in these French 
wars? 

Sir Robert Knolles, Sir John Chandos, Sir Walter Manney, 
and Du Guesclin — all famous in the rolls of chivalry, then in 
its most flourishing state. 

542. What was chivalry ? 

It was a spirit of restless valor directed to gallant enter- 
prises, blending with valor, zeal for God and the ladies. 

543. What was the effect of the institution of chivalry ? 

It softened the manners of feudal nobles, and introduced 
sentiments of generosity and gallantry. It fostered the senti- 
ment of loyalty. It had great influence in elevating the female 
sex. 

544. What illustrious woman had great influence in developing the 
spirit of chivalry ? 

Queen Philippa, wife of Edward III., the mother of 
twelve children, a magnificent example of the virtues which 
graced the chivalric age. 

545. What is the connection between chivalry and the crusades ? 
The crusades brought out the heroic qualities of knights, 

and gave an aristocratic character to feudal contests. 



THE CRUSADES TO DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. TJ 

546. Wherein consisted the power of a feudal army ? 

In the cavalry, as knights fought on horseback, covered 
with mail, while peasants fought on foot, poorly armed. 

547. What great public amusement was introduced with the progress 
of chivalry ? 

Jousts and tournaments, in which only knights contended, 
and which were witnessed by women, the most beautiful of 
whom bestowed the prizes. i 

548. What spirit did chivalry create and perpetuate ? 

An aristocratic sense of superiority, among nobles, the 
pride of birth, and a contempt of the people. 

549. What marked the history of France after the victories of 
Edward III. ? 

Miseries, misfortunes, and public disgrace. The country 
was overrun by English armies. 

550. What great calamity afflicted other parts of Europe about the 
same time ? 

The plague of Florence, 134:8, when two-thirds of the peo- 
ple died. Germany lost over a million of people. In London, 
50,000 people died. In Castile, Alphonso the king died, and 
in Venice, the Doge. 

551. What literary work did this plague, it is said, call out? 
The Decameron of Boccaccio. 

552. What political hero had great influence at Rome at this time ? 
Rienzi, the Roman tribune, who attempted to revive the 

old republic. He furnished a subject for one of Bulwer's 
best novels. 



78 POINTS OF H J STORY. 

553. What eminent Italian literary men at this time flourished ? 
Petrarcli, celebrated for his sonnets, in which he immortal- 
ized Laura, Yillani the historian, and Boccaccio. 

554. What great reformer at this time lived in England ? 
Wickliffe, an Oxford scholar, called the morning star of the 

Reformation, protected by the Duke of Lancaster. He trans- 
lated the Bible into English from the Latin vulgate. 

555. What other famous man made a mark in the literature of Eng- 
land at this time ? 

Chaucer, the poet, most celebrated for his " Canterbury 
Tales." 

556. What great ecclesiastic ornamented the reign of Edward III. } 
William of Wykeham, bishop of Winchester, who greatly 

advanced church architecture, and founded Winchester College, 
and New College at Oxford. 

557. What political events of importance took place in England during 
the reign of Richard II. (1377-1399?) 

The insurrection of Wat Tyler, with the design to seize the 
king, murder the nobility, and plunder London. 

558. What does this insurrection indicate ? 

The misgovernment of Bichard IL and his great un- 
popularity. 

559. What marked the reign of Henry IV., the last of the Plantage- 
nets, who succeeded Richard II. (deposed), 1 399-141 3 ? 

The revolt of the Welsh, under Owen Glendower ; an in- 
cursion of the Scots, under the Earl of Douglas ; an English 
insurrection headed by Scroop, archbishop of York, and the 
persecution of the disciples of Wickliffe, called Lollards. 



THE CRUSADES TO DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 79 

560. Who reigned in Scotland at the time ? 

Eobert Stuart, nephew of Eobert Bruce, the founder of 
the Stuart dynasty. 

561. What great Tartar conqueror ravaged Asia during the reigns of 
Richard and Henry ? 

Timour, or Tamerlane, whose conquests were more exten- 
sive than those of any man since Attila. He took Bajazet, the 
Turkish sultan, prisoner. 

562. Did he found a permanent empire ? 

No, his career was simply that of devastation and plunder. 
But he created universal fear, from Constantinople to China. 

563. What eminent Greek, at this time, was sent to Italy by the em- 
peror to beg assistance ? 

Emanuel Chrysoloras, who introduced Greek literature into 
Florence. 

564. What marked papal history in these disastrous and turbulent 
times ? 

The great schism, when rival popes disputed their claims as 
universal bishops, for forty years. 

565. What had been the seat of the papal power during a great part 
of the fourteenth century, previous to the schism (1378) ? 

Avignon, where the popes were elected by French influence. 

566. What memorable councils of the church took place in the begin- 
ning of the fifteenth century to heal the division of the church ? 

Those of Pisa (1409) and of Constance (1414). 

567. What eminent Frenchman distinguished himself at the Council 
of Constance for his labors in behalf of reform ? 

Gerson, chancellor of the university of Paris, who was sup- 
ported by tlie French prelates. 



So POINTS OF HISTORY. 

568. How large was the Council of Constance ? 

It was composed of 29 cardinals, 3 patriarchs, 33 arcli- 
bisliops, 150 bishops, 100 abbots, 500 monks, besides the repre- 
sentatives of the kings of Europe. It lasted three and a half 
years. 

569. To what was reform practically directed ? 

Only to the restoration of the unity of the church. 

570. What doctrine was brought out by this council ? 

That the authority of a universal council was superior to 
that of the pope. 

571. What disgraced this celebrated council? 

The condemnation and execution of John Huss and Jerome 
of Prague, leaders in an unsuccessful reform movement. 

572. What great political movements took place during the Council of 
Constance ? 

The renewed wars between England and France, under 
Henry Y. of England. 

573. What great battle was won by the English ? 

The battle of Agincourt (1415), followed by the conquest 
of Normandy, the fall of Paris, and the occupation of the 
greater part of France by the English armies. 

574. Who was king of France when it was plunged into an abyss of 
misery and shame ? 

Charles YI. who died (1422) a few months after Henry Y., 
the victorious king of England. 

575. Who was instrumental in arousing the French people to recover 
their prestige and country ? 

Joan of Arc, a peasant girl, called the Maid of Orleans, for 
having caused the English to raise the siege of that city. 



THE CRUSADES TO DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 8 1 

576. Under what reigns did Joan of Arc perform her heroic feats ? 

During the reigns of Charles YI I. of France, whose corona- 
tion at Rheims she effected, and of Henry N\. of England, who 
liad been crowned at Paris. 



577. What was the fate of the Maid of Orleans ? 
She fell into the hands oi 
the stake at Rouen as a witch. 



She fell into the hands of the English and was burned at 



578. What success attended the French armies during the reign of 
Henry VI. of England ? 

They recovered all their territories except Calais. 

579. Under what monarch did French prosperity revive ? 
Charles YII., who substituted standing for feudal armies, 

and restored law and tranquillity. He also defended the liber- 
ties of the church against the popes ? 

580. What greater monarch succeeded him (146 1) ? 

Louis XL, cruel and unprincipled, but who succeeded in 
breaking the power of the feudal nobles, and in cementing an 
absolute throne. 

581. What was the result of the final defeat of the English in France, 
during the " perpetual minority " of Henry VI. .'* 

Disturbances, insurrections, conspiracies, discontents at 
home, ending in civil war. 

582. What produced the civil war in England } 

The contest between the houses of York and Lancaster for 
the throne. 

583. What were their respective claims ? 

The Duke of York was the son of Philippa, only child of the 



82 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

Duke of Clarence, second son of Edward III., while the Duke 
of Lancaster had a direct male descent from John of Gaunt, 
tlih'd son of Edward III. 

584. How long did these civil wars, called Wars of the Roses, last ? 
Thirty years, during which there were twelve pitched 

battles, and in which eighty princes of the blood, and nearly 
the whole of the ancient nobility perished. 

585. What celebrated nobleman had great power in these wars ? 
The Earl of Warwick, called the king-maker, the greatest 

and last of those feudal nobles who overawed the crown and 
prevented a regular system of civil government. 

586. What great political calamity happened to Europe during the 
reigns of Henry VI. of England and Charles VH. of France ? 

The fall of Constantinople (1453) into the hands of the 
Turks, under Mohammed II., which completed the ruin of the 
Byzantine empire. 

587. What was one of the results of that calamity on literature ? 
The introduction of learned Greeks into Italy, who pro 

moted the study of the Greek philosophy. 

588. What powerful family in Florence patronized literature and art ? 
The family of the Medici — merchant princes, who gradually 

seized political power, and reigned triumphant over the liber- 
ties of Florence. 

589. What great invention was introduced into England during the 
reign of Edward IV. (Duke of York). 

That of printing, by William Caxton, about twenty-eight 
years after Guttenberg had invented cut metal types. 



THE CRUSADES TO DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 83 

590. What is the date of the earliest printed book ? 

The book of Psalms, from the press of Faust and Schoeffer 
at Mentz, 1457. The first edition of the Bible was completed 
by Guttenberg, 1460. 

591. What is the shortest reign in EngHsh history ? 

That of Edward Y., son of Edward lY., who reigned less 
than three months, being murdered by his uncle the Duke of 
Gloucester, who usurped the crown, and reigned for two years 
as Richard III. 

592. Who hurled this usurper, who was the last of the Plantagenets, 
from the throne ? 

Henry Tudor, Earl of Hichmond, a descendant of John of 
Gaunt, at the battle of Bosworth (1485), who became king in 
his place. 

593. What cemented the power of Henry VII. as king of England ? 
His marriage with Elizabeth, daughter of Edward lY., by 

which the houses of York and Lancaster were united, and an 
end was put to the civil wars. 

594. What magnificent prince reigned at this time in Florence ? 

Lorenzo de Medici, a great patron of reviving art and litera- 
ture, but a man who corrupted the morals and took away the 
liberties of the people. 

595. What remarkable reformer protested against his usurpations 1 
Savonarola, prior of St. Mark, a Dominican monk, but one 

of the most eloquent pulpit orators who has ever adorned the 
church. 

596. What did this great preacher strive to effect ? 

A reformation of the morals and manners of Florence, then 
a very elegant, but very dissolute city. 



84 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

597. With what success ? 

He effected a great change in public morals, although it was 
temporary. He also succeeded, on the death of Lorenzo, in 
producing the expulsion of the Medici, and a change in the 
government of Florence. 

598. What was the fate of Savonarola ? 

He was burned at the stake (1498) or, as Yillani says, he 
was beheaded, a martyr to the cause of Christ and true religion. 

599. What wicked pope is responsible for the martydom of Savo- 
narola ? 

Alexander YI., of the execrable family of the Borgias, under 
whose rule the church was disgraced by extreme corruption. 

600. What powerful influence co-operated in this century to weaken 
the bands of spiritual despotism ? 

The revival of learning and the restoration of ancient art. 

601. What great lights appeared before the close of the century? 
Nicholas Y., who founded the Yatican library; Marsilio 

Ficino, who translated Plato ; Angelo Politiano, the great 
Florentine scholar ; Chalcondylas, who published an edition of 
Homer ; Trebizond, who translated the Greek Fathers into 
Latin; Caxton, who puWished various works in England; Pla- 
tina, wlio wrote a history of the popes; Cardinal Bessarion, 
who collected a great library ; Brunelleschi, who erected the 
dome of the cathedral at Florence. 

602. But what most powerfully contributed to the enfranchisement of 
the human mind ? 

The translation of the Bible into various European lan- 
guages during the latter part of the fifteenth century, and the 
foundation of new universities. 



THE CRUSADES TO DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 85 

603. What great discovery, at this epoch, gave a new impulse tc 
human energies, and introduced a new era into history ? 

The discovery of America, bj Christopher Columbus, 1492, 
the year that Lorenzo de Medici died. 

604. Under whose auspices was this great discovery made ? 
Isabella and Ferdinand of Spain. 

605. How did these illustrious sovereigns give lustre to the Spanish 
monarchy ? 

By the union of Castile and Aragon, and the expulsion of 
the Moors from Spain, 1492. 

606. What great ecclesiastic prepared the way for the power of the 
Spanish monarchy ? 

Cardinal Ximenes, archbishop of Toledo, regent of Spain 
during the minority of Charles I., and prime minister of Fer- 
dinand. He combined the statesman, the scholar, and the 
prelate, like Kichelieu and Alberoni. 

607. What disgraced the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella ? 

The Inquisition, and the expulsion of the Jews from Spain. 

608. What new political state arose in Europe at the close of the fif- 
teenth century, destined to subsequent greatness ? 

Brandenburg, founded by the Teutonic knights. 

609. What Italian prince obtained an infamous immortality during 
the latter part of the fifteenth century ? 

C^sar Borgia, son of Pope Alexander YI., created cardi- 
nal, but wlio renounced the ecclesiastical profession for that of 
arms, and disgraced himself and his age by spoliation, treachery, 
and needless murders. 



86 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

6io. What family at Milan obtained supreme power and kept Italy in 
turmoil for half a century ? 

That of Sforza, the most unscrupulous of whom was Lodo- 
vico, duke of Milan. 

6ii. What royal marriage took place in 1496 which led to great 
'political consequences ? 

That of Philip, son of the Emperor Maximilian of Austria 
and Mary of Burgundy, to Joanna, second daughter of Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella of Spain. 

612. Why was this marriage eventful ? 

Because the fruit of it, Charles Y., subsequently emperor 
of Germany, duke of Burgundy, and king of Spain, became 
by inheritance the most powerful monarch that Europe had 
seen since Charlemagne. 

613. What had contributed to raise the power of Austria in the latter 
part of the fifteenth century, before the marriage of Philip ? 

The marriage of his father, Maximilian, archduke of 
Austria, son of Frederic III., with Mary, daughter and heiress 
of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. 

614. Who was Charles the Bold ? 

The magnificent Duke of Burgundy, who availed himself 
of tlie wars between France and England to make himself 
the most powerful monarch of his day. lie created the order 
of the Golden Fleece, which ranks with the order of the 
Garter. 

615. What marked the fifteenth century, so that it may be considered 
as the close of the Middle Ages ? 

The revival of learning ; the breaking up of the power of 
feudal nobles ; the decline of papal power and the spirit of 



THE CRUSADES TO DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 8/ 

commercial enterprise, leading to the discoveries of Columbus, 
and other mariners. 

6i6. What was the religious condition of Europe at the close of the 
Middle Ages ? 

Great ignorance and superstition among the people, and 
great venality and spiritual tyranny on the part of priests. 

617. Underneath all this ignorance and superstition what nevertheless 
marked the people } 

Susceptibility to religious impressions, belief in God and 
immortality, and a sense of moral accountability. 

618. What marked the people in their civil relation ? 

The feeling of loyalty to rulers, which made them easy to 
govern and ready to bear burdens. 

619. What was their social condition } 

Poverty, physical discomfort, and utter absence of luxuries 
and excitements, so that they seemed coarse and rude, as well 
as ignorant. 

620. What were their amusements ? 

Boxing, wrestling, cock-fighting, cudgel playing, and vil- 
lage dances, no intellectual pleasures of any kind. 

Refebences.— Villani, Froissart's Chronicles, Hallam's Middle Ages, Sismoiidi's Italian 
Republics, Guizot's Lectures on Civilization, Michelet's and Martin's History of France, 
Kolrausch'8 History of Germany, Platina's Lives of Popes, Baronius' Annals, Dugdale's 
Monasticon, Neander's Church History, Michaud's History of Crnsades, Mills' Chivalry, 
Green's History of the English People, Hume's and Lingard's History of England, Pres- 
cott's Life of Ferdinand and Isabella, Life of Charles the Bold, Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo 
de Medici, Irving' s History of Columbus. 



CHAPTEE VIII. 
The Sixteenth Century. 

621. What were the immediate consequences of the discovery of 
America ? 

A great stimulus to commercial enterprise, the increase of 
the precious metals, and other important discoveries. 



622. What were the most important of these early voyages of dis- 



covery 



Those of Cabot, under the auspices of Hemy YII., who 
discovered E^ewfoundland (1497); of Gama, under the au- 
spices of Portugal, who doubled the Capt3 of Good Hope and 
explored the Indian Ocean ; of Ojeda, who discovered Brazil ; 
of Keal, who explored the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and of Bal- 
boa, who reached the Pacific Ocean across the Isthmus of 
Darien (1513). 

623. What kingdoms most profited by the discovery of America? 

Spain and Portugal, the former by the subsequent acqui- 
sition of Mexico and Peru, which furnished gold and silver ; 
and the latter by the possession of the islands and coasts of 
the Indian Ocean, which furnished spices, gums, and precious 
stones. 

624. What marked the history of France while these discoveries were 
made ? 

The consolidation of the French monarchy under Louis 
XIL 



THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 89 

625. What marked the history of Italy in the early part of the six- 
teenth century ? 

The wars and jealousies between its various states, and the 
increase of the temporal power of the popes. 

626. What distinguished pope reigned at this time ? 

Julius II., a warrior, statesman, and patron of art, who 
commenced the erection of St. Peter's Church. 

627. What great artist was employed by this pope ? 

Michael Angelo, equally celebrated as sculptor, painter, 
and architect — the greatest man that Italy had produced since 
Dante. 

628. What other great artists characterized this age ? 

Leonardo da Vinci, Andrea del Sarto, Bramenti, Eaphael, 
Correggio, Holbein, and Albert Durer were among the most 
eminent. 

629. What distinguished literary men adorned these times ? 
Erasmus, the Greek critic ; Cardinal Bembo, Latin scholar ; 

Comines, the historian ; Ariosto, poet ; Machiavelli, the political 
writer, and Guicciardini, historian. 

630. What great prelates then flourished, of historical importance ? 
Cardinal Ximenes, minister of Ferdinand of Spain, and 

Cardinal Wolsey, who served Henry YIII. of England. 

631. What great religious movement took place in France simulta- 
neous with the English and Scotch Reformation ? 

That of the Huguenots, whose doctrines were substantially 
those of Calvin. 

632. Under what pope did arts and literature culminate in Italy ? 
Leo X., of the family of the Medici, who completed St. 

Peter's Church, and reigned as a powerful tempoi-al prince. 



go POINTS OF HISTORY. 

633. What enabled this pope to complete St. Peter's and ornament 
his capital ? 

The sale of indulgences in all the European countries, in 
accordance with the mediseval doctrine of penance. 

634. To what did the sale of indulgences directly lead ? 

To the reformation of Luther, who preached justification 
by faith, in opposition to the ideas of penance and self-expia- 
tion. 

635. Who was Martin Luther ? 

An Augustinian monk, of Saxony, who as professor of the- 
ology at Wittenberg, taught what are called the doctrines of 
grace, drawn from St. Paul and St. Augustine. 

636. Who was sent to confute him ? 

Dr. Eck, a great Catholic theologian, who disputed with 
him publicly at Leipsic, under the protection of the Elector 
of Saxony. 

637. What grew out of this controversy ? 

The recognition of the Scriptures as the supreme authority 
in all matters of faith and practice. 

638. To what right did this recognition of the Scriptures as the high- 
est authority in matters of religion lead ? 

The right of private judgment, or liberty of conscience, the 
great peculiarity of Protestantism. 

639. What followed the declaration of this right ? 

Great religious agitations in Germany, in the course of 
which the papal power was defied and important religious 
reforms took place. 



THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 9 1 

640. What other services did Luther render to the church besides the 
revolt from Rome and the establishment of Protestantism in Germany ? 

He translated the Scriptures into the vernacular tongue, 
and composed many immortal hymns. 

641. What great emperor sought to heal the agitations of Germany 
and restore the authority of the pope ? 

Charles Y., grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, whose 
dominions extended over Spain, Germany, the Netherlands, 
Burgundy and Kaples. 

642. Who were the most noted associates of Luther in the work of 
reform ? 

Melancthon, Eeuklin, Carlstadt, and Zwingle, of Switzer- 
land. 

643. What course did Henry VIII. of England take in reference to 
Luther and the doctrines of the Reformation ? 

He opposed them violently, and was rewarded by the pope 
with the title of '^ Defender of the Faith." 

644. Why, then, is Henry VIII. associated with the English Reforma- 
tion ? 

Because he dissolved the English monasteries and declared 
himself head of the English church. 

645. Why did he quarrel with the pope, and revolt against his au- 
thority ? 

Because the pope would not consent to the divorce of his 
wife Catherine, niece of Charles V. 

646. What great English statesman induced Henry to separate from 
Rome ? 

Thomas Cromwell, earl of Essex, prime minister after the 
fall of Wolsey— to whom the work was assigned for tlie sup- 
pression of monasteries. 



g2 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

6^7. What learned doctor also had a hand in the separation from 
Rome ? 

Thomas Cranmer, afterwards arclibisliop of Canterbury, who 
iiidiiccMl Henry YIII. to declare himself head of tlie En<^lish 
churcli. 

648. Why was he elevated to the primacy of the English church ? 
Because he favored the divorce, and tlie marriage of the 

kiiii^ witli Anne 13oleyn, maid of lionor to Catherine. 

649. What marked the era of Luther and Cranmer, besides religious 
agitations and reforms ? 

Tlie wars of Cliarles Y., to make himself supreme in 
Europe, and revive the emj^ire of Charlemagne. 

650. Who was his most powerful antagonist ? 

Francis I., son of Louis XII. of France, wlio commenced 
his reign in 1515. 

651. What brought to an end the wars between Charles and 
Francis I. ? 

The political agitations of Germany in consequence of the 
Keformation, and the insurrection of German princes to defend 
tlie I*rotestant faith, which was defined by the confession of 
Augsburg (1530). 

652. How far had the doctrines of the Reformation extended at the 
death of Luther? 

To Switzerland, France, Sweden, Holland and England. 

653. What gave a great impulse to religious life in England during 
the reign of Henry VIU. ? 

The |Hil)lication of the Bible in the vernacular tongue, by 
Tyiuhil and Coverdale, in 1535. 



THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 93 

654. Who gave the greatest impulse to the Reformation after the 
death of Luther ? 

Jolm Calvin, at Geneva, the most distinguished of the 
Protestant tlieologians, and who reigned as a religious dictator. 
He died in 1564. 

655. What took place in the Catholic church on the spread of Protes- 
tantism ? 

A counter reformation, effected cliicfly by tlie Jesuits. 

656. Who were the Jesuits ? 

A new order of monks founded by Ignatius Loyola, a 
Spanish enthusiast, and established by Pope Paul III., in 1540. 

657. Who were among the most distinguished of the disciples of 
Ignatius Loyola ? 

Xavier, missionary to China, and Lainez, who controlled the 
Council of Trent, and perfected the organization of the society. 

658. What was the peculiarity of the society which Loyola founded ? 
Complete and unreserved obedience to the general, and a 

rigid rule which made tlie members passive instruments of 
despotic power. 

659. What was the Council of Trent ? 

A general council of the Catholic church, assembled 1545, 
with a view to extirpate heresy and settle the creed of the 
Catholic church. 

660. What Spanish conquests in America were made during the 
reign of Charles V. ? 

Those of Mexico, by Cortez, and of Peru, by Pizarro, which 
led to the multiplication of the precious metals and the enrich- 
ment of Spain. 



g4 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

66 1. What eastern power was very formidably at this time ? 
Turkey, under Solyman the Magnificent, tlien at its cul- 
minating height. 

662. What great reformer began his work in Scotland in 1547 ? 
John Knox, the year that Erancis I. and Henry ^m died, 

during the reign of Mary, daughter of James Y., and ol Jid- 
ward YI. of England. 

663 What marked the reign of Edward VI. of England ? 

The establishment of the doctrines of the Keformation 
under Archbishop Cranmer, who promulgated the forty-two 
articles and the " Book of Common Prayer." 

664 Who succeeded Edward VI., after a short reign of six years ? 
His sister Mary (1553), who restored the Catholic religion, 
persecuted the Protestants, and executed the Lady Jane Grey. 

665. What prominent persons suffered martyrdom for their religion in 

this reign ? . , . -, tt 

Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, and bishops Hooper, 
Latimer, Eidley, with a large number of unimportant persons. 

666. What was one of the most remarkable events that took place 
during the reign of Mary ? 

The abdication of Charles Y., in the plenitude of his power, 
partly from disease and infirmity, and partly from the disper- 
sion of tlie illusions of life. 

667 To whom did he leave his vast dominions ? 

To his son Phihp he gave Spain and the Netherlands-his 
patrimonial possessions -and to his brother Ferdinand, the 
Austrian dominions. 



THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY, 95 

668. Who succeeded Mary to the throne of England ? 
Elizabeth, daughter of Henry YIII. and Anne Boleyn, in 

1558, who restored Protestantism, and reigned gloriously for 
forty-five years. 

669. What political misfortune happened to England during the reign 
of Mary ? 

The loss of Calais, in 1558, the year that Charles V. died. 

670. What was the condition of England when Elizabeth came to the 
throne ? 

It was beset with j)erils from foreign foes, who aimed to 
exterminate the Protestant religion, and it was distracted by 
the claims of rival sects, by conspiracies and cabals. 

671. What was the condition of Scotland ? 

It was agitated by religious dissensions, and the secret 
efforts and cabals of Queen Mary to restore the Catholic re- 
ligion. 

672. What was the great external event in the histoiy of England 
during the reign of Elizabeth ? 

The meditated invasion of England by the Spanish Armada, 
and the dispersion and defeat of this formidable fleet, by Lord 
Effingham, in 1588. 

673. What was the most important event in the domestic history of 
the country during this reign ? 

The establishment of Protestantism on a broad and liberal 
foundation, called by some a compromise, and effected by the 
government, who attempted to steer " half way between Rome 
and Geneva." 

674. Wherein did it differ from the religious movement in Scotland ? 
The Scotch movement was popular, the fruit of ideas pro- 



rp POINTS OF HISTORY. 

mulgated by the clergy, at the head of whom was Knox, who 
established the Presbyterian form, and against the private in- 
clination of the sovereign. 

675. In what respects was Elizabeth a benefactor of England, next to 
her efforts to establish Protestantism ? 

By the encouragement she gave to commerce, colonization, 
agriculture, and manufactures— in otlier words, by her develop- 
ment of the internal resources of her kingdom. 

676. What illustrious man was her prime minister, to whom this wise 
policy is much indebted, and who, in this respect resembled Colbert, Sir 
Robert Peel, and Mr. Gladstone ? 

Lord Burleigh, who served the country for forty years, and 
who maintained a peace policy, avoiding war, and all entan- 
gling alliances. 

677. What religious dissensions took place in the latter part of the 
reign ? 

Those made by the Nonconformists, chiefly Presbyterians, 
who wished to introduce the creed of Calvin and a greater 
simplicity in the worship of God, for which they were per- 
secuted. 

678. What was the distinguishing glory of this reign ? 

The discussion of great ideas, both in government and re- 
ligion, and the remarkable constellation of men of genius who 
shed lustre around the throne. 

679. Who were some of the most illustrious of these men ? 
Burleigh and Walsingham as statesmen ; Spenser, Jonson, 

and Shakespeare as poets ; Bacon and Coke as lawyers ; Jew- 
ell, Taylor, Parker, and Hooker as theologians ; Kaleigli, 
Essex, and Sydney as courtiers ; Drake and Frobisher as navi 
gators ; Ascham, the Greek scholar, and Gresham the financier. 



THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 97 

680. What great religious movement took place in France during tlie 
reign of Elizabeth ? 

That under the Huguenots, disciples of John Calvin. 

681. How far did his doctrines extend in France ? 

To all parts of the kingdom. Nearly one-half of the whole 
population were Protestants. 

682. What monarchs attempted to exterminate them, from religious 
bigotry ? 

Henry II. (who succeeded Francis L), Francis II., and 
Charles IX., aided by the Jesuits, and encouraged by the 
popes. 

683. What great crime precipitated the nation into civil war? 

The massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572), prompted by the 
Duke of Guise, the Cardinal of Lorraine, and Catherine de 
Medici, during the reign of Charles IX., in which 30,000 in- 
nocent people were treacherously and inhumanely assassinated, 
including Coligny, admiral of France. 

684. How long did the civil war last in France between the Catholics 
and the Huguenots ? 

At intervals for forty years, which decimated the kingdom, 
and sowed the seeds of future revolutions. 

685. What great hero did this war produce ? 

Henry IV., the first of the Bourbon kings, descended from 
Anthony, king of ISTavarre and Jane d'Albret. He became 
king on the death of Henry III., the last of the princes of the 
house of Valois. 

686. What decisive victory freed the Huguenots from royal oppres- 
sion ? 

The battle of Ivry (1590), gained by Henry lY., wliich 

virtuallv ended the civil war. 



98 POINTS OF HISTORY, 

6S7. What great act distinguished the reign of Henry IV. ? 

The edict of Nantes (1598), which granted religious liberty 
to the Protestants, and gave them admission to civil employ- 
ments. 

688. What else did Henry IV. do for France ? 

He developed the industrial resources of the kingdom and 
promoted tranquillity and law. 

689. What sullied his glory ? 

His abjuration of the Protestant faith, of which he had 
been a glorious defender, and his return to the ranks of the 
Catholics. 

690. What prompted him to this apostacy } 

Motives of expediency, to secure his crown, to promote 
public tranquillity, and to make peace with the enemies of the 
Protestant cause. 

691. What was the result of this abjuration ? 

France became again a Catholic country, and the Protes- 
tants lost prestige, social position, and political power. The 
cause of Protestantism was lost in France. 

692. What great scheme did Henry IV. contemplate for the peace ol 
Europe ? 

A balance of power, with a view to settle national difficul- 
ties by arbitration, and to establish the principles of interna- 
tional law. It also had in view the humiliation of the power 
of Austria, which menaced the liberties of Europe, and the 
stability of thrones. 

693. What prevented the execution of this enlightened scheme, and 
also further reforms in France ? 

The assassination of the king by the fanatic Ravaillac, May 
12, 1608. 



THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 99 

694. What great statesman served Henry IV., as Burleigh sen-ed 
Elizabeth ? 

The Duke of Sully, liis prime iniiiister, who sought to de- 
velop the internal resources of the kingdom, and establish 
sound financial principles— one of tlie ablest statesmen that 
ever served an absolute king. 

695. Who governed France on the death of Henry IV. ? 

His widow, Mary de Medici, as regent, during the minor- 
ity of Louis XIII. 

696. What was the most powerful monarchy in Europe during the 
reigns of Queen Elizabeth and Henry IV. ? 

Spain, under Philip II. 

697. What events signalized his long reign (1556— 1598) ? 

A systematic persecution of the Protestants, especially in 
the Netherlands ; the cruelties of the Inquisition in Spain; the 
expedition against England, called the "Invincible Armada;" 
the acquisition of Portugal, and the revolt of the Moriscoes. 

698. What was the resTilt of the persecution of the Protestants ? 

It rooted out Protestantism in Spain, and all liberal 
opinions. 

699. Who rescued the Netherlands from the yoke of Spain ? 
William the Silent, Prince of Orange, wlio united under 

him the seven northern provinces in rebellion, since they 
had become Protestant. Chosen stadtholder 1581, assassinated 
1684. 

700. What famous general then governed the Netherlands ? 

The Duke of Alva, the ablest of the Spanish generals, who 
had served under Charles V. 



lOO POINTS OF HISTORY. 

701. What marked his career ? 

Excessive cruelties ; he boasted that he had executed 18,000 
people. He executed the heads of the Protestant party — 
Counts Egmont and Horn. 

702. What great general succeeded the Duke of Alva in the govern- 
ment of the Netherlands ? 

The Duke of Parma, who compelled the submission of the 
ten southern provinces. 

703. Who led the Dutch to victory after the assassination of the 
Prince of Orange ? 

Prince Maurice, his second son. 

704. What great theologian in Holland opposed the doctrines of 
Calvin ? 

Arminius, professor of theology at Leyden, whose doctrines 
modified theological opinions in all Protestant countries. 

705. What probably enabled the United Provinces (Holland) to 
achieve their independence (1609) ? 

The great wealth which Dutch commerce, and the Dutch 
possessions in the East, in Java and other places brought into 
the country, and the assistance of the English. 

706. What great events took place in Germany while the Dutch were 
achieving their independence, and England was being enriched by the 
wise administration of Elizabeth ? 

Severe religious persecutions by the Austrian emperors, 
which led to powerful leagues among the Protestant princes to 
defend their religious liberties. 

707. What marked the Church of Rome at this period ? 

The " Counter Keforniation," effected chiefly by the Jesuits, 



THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. lOI 

whose marvellous attainments and ente'rprises were the admira- 
tion of the Catholic world, and who were rewarded with higli 
places by the austere and religious pontiffs that adorned the 
latter part of the sixteenth century. 

708. In reviewing the sixteenth centur)', what should we say were its 
great features ? 

The agitation of religious ideas, the revival of learning, 
great maritime discoveries, and the triumph of Protestantism 
in half of the countries of Europe. 

709. What great battle was fought towards the end of the century 
which arrested the conquests of the Turks ? 

The battle of Lepanto, in 1571, gained by the combined 
fleets of Yenice, Spain, and Genoa, commanded by Don John 
of Austria. 

710. Who were the great military heroes of this century ? 

Henry lY. of France, the Duke of Guise, the Duke of 
Alva, the Duke of Parma, Prince Maurice, and Don John of 
Austria. 

711. What new northern empire arose into prominence in the six- 
teenth century ? 

Russia, under Ivan lY., wtio reigned from 1533 to 158-1. 

712. What great scholars and prelates adorned the Catholic church 
during the sixteenth century ? 

Cardinal Baronius, the historian, and Cardinal Borromeo, 
archbishop of Milan, whose influence secured the election of 
good and able popes. 

713. What eminent scholars adorned Protestant literature at the same 
time ? 

Scaliger, Lipsius, and Heinsius, Ascham, Martin Bucer and 
Melancthon. 



102 rO/JVTS OF HISTORY. 

yi/[. Who were eminent in the field of science ? 
Copernicus, Kepler and Tyclio Bralie, who laid the founda- 
tion of modern astronomy. 

715. What eminent French writers flourished at this time? 
Eabelais, Montaigne, essayist, and De Thou, the historian. 

716. Who were the great artists of this century ? 

The three Caracci, Correggio, Titian, Holbein, Rubens 
painters ; Lescot and Inigo Jones, architects ; Cellini, sculptor ; 
and Palestrina, musician. 

Kefbrences.— Robertson's Charles V., Be Thou, Roscoe's Leo X., Ranke's Lives of the 
Popes, D'Auhigne'e History of the Reformation, Ranlce's History of the Reformation, 
Fronde's History of England, Hume's, Lingard's, and Green's Histories of England, Henri 
Martin's History of Prance, Sully's Memoirs, Henry's Life of Calvin, Lives of the Painters, 
Motley's History of Philip II., Prescott's History of the Conquest of Peru, Life of John 
Knox, History of the Jesuits. These are the standard histories, but the lives of all the 
great men are accessible. 



CHArXEK IX. 

Continental Europe in the Seventeenth Centuky. 

717. What is one of the most prominent features of the seventeenth 
century ? 

Wars to establish the ideas of the Reformation, the balance 
of power, and civil liberty. 

718. What is another prominent feature? 
Speculations in science, philosophy, and religion. 

719. What is a third feature ? 

The colonization of America, and rise of new states. 

720. What was the first great war of this century ? 

The thirty years' war, to secure religious liberty in Ger- 
many. 

721. Under whose reign did this war take place ? 
The Austrian emperor, Ferdinand, 1620. 

722. What was the first act of the bloody drama ? 

An insurrection in Bohemia, caused by the deprivation of 
her religious privileges. 

723. What was the second act of the tragedy ? 

The successes of Count Mansfeldt, who dared to defy the 
whole imperial power, supported by James I. of England, and 
Christian, king of Denmark. 



104 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

724. What great general came to the aid of the emperor and gained 
great victories over the Protestants ? 

Wallenstein, the richest nobleman of Bohemia, who raised 
an army at his own expense. 

725. What were his victories ? 

He compelled the Elector Palatine, son-in-law of James I., 
to become a fugitive ; he drove the king of Denmark ont of 
Germany ; he forced the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg 
to an inglorious neutrality, and devastated Germany with fire 
and sword. 

726. Who came to the rescue of the Protestants, in 1630? 
Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, the greatest warrior 

of his century, one hundred years after the confession of Augs- 
burg and the League of Smalcalde. 

727. What were his victories ? 

In two years he regained all the Protestants had lost. 

728. What battle decided the religious liberties of Germany ? 

The battle of Lutzen, in Saxony (1630), gained by Gustavus, 
but in which he lost his life. 

729. How much longer did the war continue ? 

Sixteen years, and involved other powers, but nothing deci- 
sive was effected by either party. 

730. When was the war closed ? 

In 164:8, by the treaty of Westphalia, which guaranteed 
the liberties of Germany, and broke forever the Austrian as- 
cendency. This great treaty, the most important in European 
history, is the foundation of the whole system of modern 
politics. 



EUROPE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. I05 

731. What were the immediate consequences of this bloody war? 
The depopulation of Germany, and a general devastation 

and demoralization from which it took several generations to 
recover. 

732. What were the uhimate consequences ? 

The religious liberties of the German nations, and the es- 
tablishment of a balance of power. 

733. What great man in France arose to power during the continu- 
ance of the thirty years' war? 

Cardinal Eichelieu, during the reign of Louis XIII,, who 
aggrandized the French monarchy, although he reduced the 
kins: himself to insi2:nificance. 

734. What were the means employed by Richelieu in raising the 
power of the crown ? 

He aided the Protestants of Germany in order to humiliate 
Austria, whose ascendency was dangerous ; he broke the power 
of the nobles ; he subdued the Huguenots, and humbled the 
parliament of Paris. 

735. Why did he decimate the nobles ? 

Because they were full of cabals and intrigues against tho 
government and were hostile to a central power. 

736. Why did he reduce the Huguenots ? 

Because they composed an imperium in irajperio^ and were 
also hostile to the ascendency of a central power, and kept 
the kingdom in constant alarm. 

737. Why did he cripple the parliament ? 

Because, as a body of pedantic, aristocratic lawyers, they 
thought more of enjoying their privileges than of securing 
the peace of the realm. 



I06 POINTS OF HISTORY, 

738. What else did Richelieu effect for the benefit of France, beside 
the establishment of the power of the crown ? 

lie developed the resources of the kingdom, founded a 
navy, placed able men in office, punished traitors and culprits, 
and encouraged learning and art. 

739. What legacy did he bequeath to France ? 

Absolutism, then much needed, under Louis XIY., whose 
greatness was the secpel of Richelieu's policy. 

740. When did Louis XIV. commence his reign ? 

IS'ominally in 1643, but being an infant the government was 
really in the hands of Mary de Medici as regent. 

741. What great minister ruled France during the regency? 
Cardinal Mazarin, whom Eichelieu, dying, recommended as 

his successor. 

742. What marked the administration of Mazarin ? 

The war of the Fronde — a civil war in which the nobles 
contended for j)0wer. 

743. Who were the chief actors in this civil war? 

De Eetz, archbishop of Paris, the Princes of Conde and 
Conti, the Duke de Longueville, and Marshal Turenne. 

744. What characterized this war ? 

The perpetual intrigues and shifting scenes, undecisive 
contests, and alternate victory and defeat of the government. 

745. What famous religious controversy arose in France during tlie 
war of the Fronde ? 

That between the Jesuits and the Jansenists, which grew 
out of the disputed questions pertaining to Grace and Predes- 



EUROPE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. lO/ 

tination, similar to the controversy between St. Augustine and 
Pelagius in the latter days of the Roman empire. 

746. Who were the great men on the Jansenist side ? 

Cornelius Jansen, Jean de Yerger, Arnauld d'AntilJy, Lc 
Maitre, and Pascal — all of whom were distinguished scholars 
or theologians. 

747. What famous book did Pascal publish against the Jesuits } 
The " Provincial Letters," remarkable for irony, sarcasm, 

and grace of style, which turned the Jesuits into ridicule, and 
undermined the respect of Europe. 

748. Whom particularly did he ridicule ? 

The Casuists, like Molina : a class of writers, chiefly Jesuits, 
who defended the doctrine that the end justifies the means ; so 
that the persecutions and spiritual despotism and lax morality 
of the Catholics were justified. 

749. For what was Pascal especially distinguished ? 

For his scientific discoveries and great mathematical 



750. When did Louis XIV. commence to reign ? 

Ilis nominal reign commenced in 1643, when he was a boy 
of five years. His real reign commenced on the death of 
Mazarin, 1661, when he was eighteen. 

7,51. What first turned attention to Louis XIV. ? 
His ambitious and unjustifiable wars, in which lie sought 
to add Flanders and Holland to his dominions. 

752. Who were his generals in this war? 

Conde, Turenne, and Luxemburg were the most famous. 



I08 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

753. Who was his principal minister ? 

Colbert, controller-general of the finances, who furnished 
the money for Louis to play the part of an Alexander. 

754. What was remarkable about Colbert? 

He improved the finances and developed the industrial 
resources of the kingdom. 

755. What was the fundamental principle of his financial policy? 
That of protection to manufactures, a principle generally 

adopted by political economists until the " Wealth of I^ations" 
was written by Adam Smith, the father of free trade. 

756. Who was the great war minister of Louis XIV. ? 

Louvois, who laid out his campaigns, and enabled Louis to 
raise and equip the largest armies of regular forces that Europe 
had seen since the Antonines. 

757. With what success did Louis meet in war on the United Pro- 
vinces ? 

They were completely overrun, and in a few weeks all of 
them surrendered but Holland and Zealand. 

758. In this crisis who was raised up for the defence of Holland ? 
William, Prince of Orange, afterwards king of England, who 

advised the Hollanders to reject the humiliating terms of the 
French king, and fight to their last ditch. 

759. Was William able to keep the French forces at bay ? 

Yes, aided by storms and inundations, he jDrevented Conde 
and Turenne from subduing Holland. 

760. Who was employed by Louis to construct fortresses in the 
Netherlands ? 

Yauban, the great engineer, who fortified the citadels of 
the French king. 



EUROPE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. IO9 

761. What powerful league was formed to arrest the conquests of 
Louis XIV. in 1672 ? 

That of Germany, Brandenburg, and Spain. 

762. Why did not England join also ? 

Because England was then ruled by Charles II., and he was 
a pensioner of Louis XIY. 

'jdl. What was the great battle of this war } 
That of Senef, between Conde and the Stadtholder, Wil- 
liam (1674). 

764. For what was this war memorable ? 

The desolation of the Palatinate and Bhine provinces by 
Turenne, killed 1675. At the close of the campaign Conde 
retired from active service. 

765. What treaty closed the war ? 

That of ]N'imeguen, 1678, which left Louis XIV. with no 
accession of territory except Franche Comte and some for- 
tresses in Flanders. 

766. How long did peace continue } 

Nine years, during which Louis reigned with unparalleled 
splendor, surrounded with idolators. 

767. Who made the court of Louis both brilliant and infamous } 
Madame de Montespan, an imperious beauty, who dispensed 

the royal favors, encouraged the most boundless extravagance, 
and instituted a perpetual succession of balls and fetes and 
gayeties. 

768. What was the characteristic feature of the reign? 

An absolute despotism, and the concentration of all the 
wealth and power of France to give lustre to the throne. 



no POINTS OF HISTORY. 

769. What great combination was made in 1687 to break her power, 
which was regarded as dangerous to the liberties of Europe, as the power 
of Austria was regarded the century before ? 

The League of Augsburg, to preserve the balance of 
power, composed of Germany, Spain, Holland, and afterwards 
of England. 

770. What course did Louis pursue amid so many threatening evils ? 
He put forth all his energies, and sent 400,000 men into the 

field. 

771. Who commanded the forces of Louis ? 
Luxemburg was the most famous. 

772. Who commanded the allied forces ? 

William of Nassau, now king of England, the Duke of 
Marlborough the Elector of Bavaria, the Duke of Lorraine, and 
the Duke of Saxony. 

773. What great battles were fought in this long war of nine years ? 
The battle of Fleurus, 1690, gained by Luxemburg; the 

naval battle of La Hogue, 1692, which crippled the French 
navy ; the battle of Steinkirk, gained by the French ; the 
battle of Keerwinde, which was disastrous to the English and 
Dutch ; and the battle of Namur, gained by William. 

774. Were any of these battles decisive ? 

No, but they were bloody, and crippled the forces of all 
the contending parties, so that peace became a necessity. 

775. What was this peace called ? 

The peace of Ryswick, 1697, by which France retained the 
conquests she had made, and William III. was recognized as 
king of England, but which left the contending parties pretty' 
much as they were before the war. 



EUROPE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. Ill 

Tj(i. Who were the heroes of this war ? 

Luxemburg on the part of France, and William of Nassau 
on tlie part of the allies. 

']']']. How did the French regard this war ? 

As covering Louis XIY. with glory, while, in reality, it 
crippled his resources. 

778. What extraordinary woman played a prominent part in French 
history at this time ? 

Madame de Maintenon, who secretly became the wife of 
Louis XIY., in 1685. 

779. What was remarkable about this woman ? 

She arose from an obscure position by her talents, her tact, 
and her graces, to be the virtual ruler of France for nearly 
forty years. 

780. What was the influence she exerted ? 

She encouraged learning, patronized able men, reformed 
the manners and morals of the court, and assisted Louis to bear 
with dignity his reverses. 

781. Wherein was her influence bad ? 

She encouraged religious persecution and cruelly oppressed 
the Protestants. She, incited by the Jesuits, persuaded the 
king to revoke the Edict of Nantes, which Henry IV. had 

signed, 1685. 

782. What was the extent of the religious persecution which dis- 
graced the reign of Louis XIV. ? 

About 200,000 were executed, and as many more iled the 
kingdom or were exiled, and these people were among the 
best people of France. 



112 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

783. What persecution for religious opinion took place besides that of 
the Huguenots? 

Tliat which was directed against the Jansenists, stimulated 
by the Jesuits. 

784. Was Louis permitted, when he was an old man, to live in peace ? 
No ; a new confederation was formed against him in which 

England and Germany took the principal part. 

785. What caused this new combination of enemies ? 

Chiefly the unrelenting hostility of William III., and the 
jealousy of the leading powers of Europe. 

786. What was this war called ? 

The war of the Spanish succession, arising openly, from the 
effort of Louis XIY. to j^lace his grandson on the throne of 
Spain, on the death of Charles II., the last of the Austrian 
kings. 

787. What was the issue of this long and bloody war, which lasted 
twelve years ? 

It was disastrous to France, exhausted the resources of the 
kingdom, and overwhelmed the latter days of Louis XIY. with 
disgrace and humiliation. 

788. Who were the heroes of this war ? 

The Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene. 

789. What were its decisive battles ? 

That of Blenheim, 170-1, when 40,000 were killed or taken 
])risoners ; that of Kamillies, 1706, which secured the conquest 
of Brabant ; and that of Malplaquet, which compelled Louis to 
sue for peace. 

790. What was settled by the treaty of Utrecht in 171 3 ? 

Chiefly that the House of Hanover should succeed to the 



EUROPE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. I 1 3, 

throne of Englimd, and that Philip Y. of Spain, grandson of 
Louis XIV., should relinquish all claims to the throne of France 
in case of the death of the heir apparent. 

791. What made the treaty of Utrecht the most important that had 
been signed in Europe since the treaty of Westphalia ? 

It crippled the French monarchy, so that it was no longer 
the ascendant state of Europe, and made England one of the 
leading powers. It gave to the Protestant states of Europe an 
equality with the Catholic. It secured the balance of power 
until the conquests of Napoleon. ** 

792. How long did Louis survive his humiliation ? 

Only two years. He died an embittered and miserable old 
man, after the longest reign in French annals, aged seventy-six 
years. All his delusions were dispelled. 

793. What chiefly caused his great reverses ? 

His unnecessary wars, in which glory was succeeded by 
shame, and his passion for palace building, which ina,ugurated 
an outrageous extravagance at the court of France. 

794. What great power continually declined after the reign of 
Philip II. ? 

That of Spain. 

795. What were the causes of her decline ? 

The revolt of the Netherlands, under William the Silent, 
weakened her military prestige ; the defeat of the Invincible 
Armada ccippled her naval power ; the disproportionate for- 
tunes made by commerce weakened the middle class ; the In- 
quisition and the tyranny exercised by the clergy destroyed 
independence and manliness. 



114 P0INT3 OF HISTORY. 

796. While Spain was declining in political importance what powers 
were rapidly rising ? 

Those of Russia and Pnissia. 

797. What great man gave an immense impulse to the power of 
Russia? 

Peter the Great, a descendant of the Czars who had exter- 
minated the Tartar rule in the fifteenth century. 

798. What was the capital of the dominion of the Czars ? 
Moscow, where they reigned witli unlimited power. 

799. Why may Peter the Great be numbered in the list of national 
benefactors ? 

Because he developed the resources of his kingdom, civil- 
ized his countrymen, created an efficient army and navy of 
disciplined men, improved the whole civil administration of 
the empire, and tolerated all religions. 

800. How was he enabled to centralize power around his throne ? 
By instituting a regular standing army, and humiliating 

the nobles. 

801. Who of all the great modern statesmen did he most admire and 
imitate ? 

Cardinal de Richelieu, who strengthened the throne of 
Louis XIY. and centralized the French monarchy. 

802. What foreign war first occupied the attention of Peter the Great ? 
That with Charles XII. of Sweden, at that time the most 

powerful of the northern nations of Europe. 

S03. With what success did Peter invade Sweden ? 
He was disgracefully defeated by an army one-third as 
large as his. 



EUROPE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. II5 

804. What was the moral effect of that defeat ? 

It simply stimulated him to greater exertions, while the 
success of Charles intoxicated him, and filled him with pre- 
sumptuous self-confidence. 

805. What policy did Charles pursue after his victory ? 

He invaded Russia, after conquering Poland, with 80,000 
veterans ; but, as Peter avoided a battle, he was decoyed into 
the heart of Russia, where his army melted away. 

806. What checked the military career of Charles XII. ? 

The battle of Pultowa, 1709, which drove Charles into 
Turkey, as a fugitive. 

807. What schemes did Charles set on foot in Turkey } 

He enlisted the Sultan in his cause, who sent an army of 
250,000 men into Russia. 

808. How was Peter extricated from his dangers, after being defeated 
at Pruth ? 

He made a favorable treaty with the Turks, with the assist- 
ance of his wife. 

809. Who was his wife } 

Catherine, originally the daughter of a poor woman in Li- 
vonia, but a woman of prodigious tact, who became empress 
after the death of Peter. 

810. To what did Peter give his attention after his defeat at Pruth? 
To the construction of a navy by which he became master 

of both sides of the Gulf of Finland, and by which his empire 
was protected from invasion. 

811. What religious change did Peter make ? 

He abolished the patriarchate and declared himself liead of 
Russian church, which was of the Greek religion. 



Il6 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

8 1 2. What great city did he build? 

St. Petersburg, situated in the midst of marshes at the 
mouth of the Il^eva, and against the influence of the Russian 
nobles. 

813. What were the obstacles ? 

Innumerable : 100,000 men perished before the city was 
completed, but which became the capital of Russia. 

814. What great minister rendered invaluable services to the Czar .^ 
Menzikoff, originally a seller of pies at Moscow, but whose 

great talents were detected by Peter, and magnificently re- 
warded. 

815. What was very extraordinary in the life of Peter .^ 

His two tours of Europe, as a private man, with the object 
of studying the laws and institutions of different countries. 
In Holland he worked as a carpenter in a ship-yard. 

816. What was the bequest of Peter to Russia ? 

His labors in behalf of civilization. He found his empire 
semi-barbarous; he left it a first-class power. He was the 
greatest civilizer since Charlemagne. 

817. Why did not Sweden increase in political power after the death of 
Gustavus Adolphus, since at his death it was one-third larger than France 
when Louis XIV. commenced his reign ? 

Because it was misgoverned by his daughter Christina, who 
abdicated her throne for the pleasures of Italy. 

818. What misfortunes happened to Sweden in consequence of the 
ambitions of Charles XII. ? 

They were divested of all their conquests, and Peter gained 
what Charles lost. 



EUROPE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. WJ 

819. What did Sweden retain ? 

Her ancient limits, her religion, and her institutions. But 
she sunk to the rank of a second-class power. 

820. What greater misfortunes happened to Poland ? 

Internal dissensions, from the ambition of nobles, who de- 
prived the king of a great share of his power. 

821. What was the condition of Poland in the sixteenth centiir)' ? 

It was a powerful state under the Jagcllons, but on the 
death of Sigismund IL, 1572, the last of the dynasty, the 
nobles made the kingdom elective. 

822. In whom were vested the right of election ? 

The whole body of the nobles, assembled on the plain of 
Praga ; and these feudal warriors made exactions subversive of 
the royal dignity, without gaining constitutional liberties, as in 
England. 

823. Who was the first elected monarch of Poland ? 
Henry of Yalois, afterward Henry III. of France. 

824. Who of the elected kings of Poland distinguished himself? 
John Sobieski, a Polish nobleman, who with 10,000 Poles 

defeated 80,000 Cossacks. 

825. What was the condition of Poland when this patriot was elected 
king, 1674? 

It was reduced to the verge of ruin by desolating wars with 
the Cossacks and Tartars, the hereditary enemies of Poland. 

826. What great service did this illustrious man render to the cause 
of European liberties? 

He defeated the Turks, who had laid siege to Vienna with 
200,000 men, and caused them to raise the siege. 



Il8 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

827. What reward did Austria give to the Poles for this timely aid ? 
She subsequently entered into an alliance with Russia and 

Prussia, for the dismemberment of Poland — one of the greatest 
political crimes on record. 

828. Who succeeded the gallant Sobieski (John III.), 1696? 
Frederic Augustus, Elector of Saxony, whose reign was a 

series of disasters, ending in his own dethronement by Charles 
XII. 

829. What is noteworthy in the history of Germany from the peace of 
Westphalia during the seventeenth century ? 

Disastrous wars with France, the loss of the Hhenish prov- 
inces, and the rise of the power of Prussia. 

830. What distinguished generals did these wars with France pro- 
duce ? 

Montecuculi, who opposed Marshal Turenne on the Phine, 
and Prince Eugene of Saxony in the war of the S23anisli suc- 
cession. 

831. What were the trophies of Prince Eugene ? 

He gained, with the Duke of Marlborough, the great vic- 
tory of Blenheim, 1704, and of Malplaquet in 1709. 

832. What great elector of Brandenburg elevated his electorate into a 
kingdom, and laid the foundation of the power of Prussia? 

Frederic III., proclaimed king at Konigsberg, 1701, the old 
capital of the Teutonic knights, soon after the Prince of 
Orange became king of England. 

833. What was the condition of Turkey during the seventeenth 
century ? 

A visible decline, which took place after the battle of 
Lepanto, 1571, which destroyed the naval ascendency of the 



EUROPE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. I IQ 

Turks in tlie Mediterranean. The defeat of the Turks, under 
the walls of Vienna, by Sobieski, also further weakened the 
Turkish military power. 

834. What employed the attention of the sultans during the seven- 
teenth century ? 

Conflicts with the Janizaries, or the imperial guard, who 
made and unmade sultans, as the old Pretorians of Rome made 
and unmade emperors. 

835. What great Eastern prince reigned in India in the latter part of 
the seventeenth centur)' ? 

Aurungzebe, who erected the Mogul empire. 

836. What was the condition of the Papacy during the seventeenth 
century ? 

A great reaction in its favor, called the counter revolution, 
effected by able and pious popes, and the transcendent services 
of the Jesuits. 

837. What colonial conquests were made the latter half of the century ? 
The Dutch took away from the Portuguese most of their 

possessions in the East Indies. 

838. What colonial settlements were made ? 

By the French, in the West Indies and Canada. 

839. What great jurist flourished in Holland during this century? 
Grotius, the founder of the system of international law, the 

most learned man of his age. 

840. What eminent philosophers in France and Germany adorned this 
century ? 

Descartes and Leibnitz. 



I20 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

841. What great astronomers did this age produce ? 

Kepler and Galileo, the latter of whom, by his telescope, 
discovered the satellites of Jupiter, which gave the holding 
turn to the opinions of astronomers respecting the Copernican 
system, and established the fact that the sun is the centre 
around which tlie earth revolves. 

842. What great painters flourished in the seventeenth century ? 
Rubens, Yandyck, and Tleml)randt in Holland, Salvator 

Rosa in Italy, Poussin and Le Brun in France, Murillo in 
Spain. 

843. Who were the poets of this century in France ? 
Corneille, Moliere, Boileau, and Racine. 

844. What eminent writers in the seventeenth century ? 

Bossuet, Fcnelon, Pascal, Arnauld, Mabillon, and Tillemont 
— all Frenchmen. 

References.— Russeirs Modern Europe, Martin's History of France, Ranke's History 
of the Popes, History of the Thirty Years' War, Life of Gustavus Adolphus, Schiller's Wal- 
lenstcin, Life of Richelieu, Miss Pardee's History of Louis XIV., History of the Fronde, 
Memoirs of Cardinal de Retz, Life of Pascal, Provincial Letters, Memoirs of Madame de 
Maintenon, Life of Peter the Great, Voltaire's Life of Charles XII., Lives of Bossuet and 
F6nelon, Voltaire's Life of Louis XIV., Browning's History of the Huguenots. 



CHAPTER X. 
English History m the Seventeenth Centtjey. 

845. Who succeeded Queen Elizabeth ? 

James I., the first of the Stuarts, son of Mary Queen of 

Scots. 

846. What marked his reign, 1603 — 1625 ? 

The Gunpowder Plot, the persecutions of Catholics and 
Nonconformists, and efforts on the part of the crown to exer- 
cise despotic power. 

847. Who was his tool and favorite ? 

George Yilliers, duke of Buckingham, a fop and flatterer, 
who pandered to the king's tastes and trampled upon the con- 
stitution. 

848. What execution sullied the reign of James? 

That of Sir "Walter Raleigh, who had been cruelly impris- 
oned twelve years for the failure of his expedition to Guiana 
in quest of gold. 

849. What great disgrace, in the reign of James, happened to Francis 
Bacon, in spite of all his illustrious labors in philosophy ? 

He took bribes while lord high chancellor, and was de- 
graded from his office and condemned to pay a heavy fine. 

850. What eminent man rivalled Bacon in the law ? 

Sir Edward Coke, lord chief justice, whose severe scruti- 



122 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

nies into the abuses of tlie crown prepared the way for more 
radical reforms in the next reign. 

851. What were the abuses which disgraced the reign of James I. ? 

The sale of monopolies, arbitrary arrests, Star Chamber de- 
crees, the intolerance of the High Commission Court, and the 
rule of favorites. 

852. What especially irritated the nation? 

The contemplated marriage of the Prince of Wales with the 
Infanta of Spain, whicli he was obliged to give up, but which 
led to a war with Spain. 

853. What course did Charles I., who succeeded James in 1625, pur- 
sue on ascending the throne ? 

He continued, more boldly, the struggle for royal preroga- 
tives, and increased the monopolies and illegal taxation, and 
continued the persecution of the Puritans. 

854. What course did the House of Commons pursue? 

It granted paltry subsidies, and fettered the government by 
withholding the necessary supplies. 

855. How did the king retaliate ? 

He dissolved the parliament, and resolved to rule without 
one, on principles of absolutism. 

856. Who were his favorite ministers ? 

Thomas Wentworth, earl of Strafford, and Laud, archbishop 
of Canterbury, who goaded on the king to imprudent measures, 
which were subversive of the liberties of the nation. 

857. What great men led the House of Commons in its resistance to 
the crown ? 

Pym and Hampden were the most distinguished — both 
Presbyterians, and both resolved on constitutional reforms. 



ENGLISH HISTORY— SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 1 23 

858. What was the mistake of the king? 

In not yielding to constitutional reforms, which might have 
crippled his power, but would not have endangered his throne. 

859. What mistakes did the leaders of reform make ? 

In not patiently waiting to secure reforms in a constitu- 
tional manner, which they might have effected ultimately, 
since they controlled supplies. 

860. What great blunder did the king then make ? 

He imprisoned members of parliament and extorted money 
in an illegal manner, especially he imposed a tax on the inland 
counties and cities under pretence of supporting the navy. 

861. Who refused to pay this tax? 

John Hampden, who was prosecuted by the crown lawyers, 
and condemned, which produced great commotion (1637). 

862. What increased the public discontents ? 

The attempt of Laud to impose the English liturgy on the 
Scottish nation which was chiefly Presbyterian. 

863. What compelled the king, at last, to assemble a parliament after 
having ruled eleven years without one, and in the most arbitrary manner, 
with fines, imprisonments, and confiscations ? 

His necessities. He had exhausted his expedients to raise 
money. 

864. How long did this parliament last ? 

Only a few months, since it was refractory. 

865. What bold measures did the next parliament adopt ? 

It impeached Laud and Strafford, and openly confronted 
the government. 



124 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

866. What retaliation did the king make ? 

He attempted to arrest five of the parliamentary leaders, 
who fled, and prepared for civil war. 

867. Was war inevitable ? 

Yes, since both parties refused to make concessions, and 
both were inflamed with deadly animosities. 

868. What great general did the civil v^ar produce ? 

Oliver Cromwell, a rigid Puritan, and member of parlia- 
ment, who had hitherto been a mere country squire. 

869. What was the first battle of note ? 

That of Edge Hill (1642), in which Cromwell was captain 
of a troop of horse. 

870. Who commanded the Parliamentary army ? 
The Earl of Essex, who was a Presbyterian. 

871. What battle gave the ascendency to the Puritans ? 

That of Marston Moor (1644:), in which Cromwell, now 
lieutenant-general, distinguished himself, by the discipline of 
his men. 

872. What battle led to the captivity of the king and made Cromwell 
the first man in England ? 

The battle of Naseby (1645), when Cromwell commanded 
the right wing against Prince Kupert and Charles. 

873. What was the next important battle ? 

That of Preston (1648), in which Cromwell defeated the 
Scotch, commanded by the Duke of Hamilton, which opened 
Edinburgh to his troops and made him connnander-in-chief of 
the armies of the commonwealth. 



ENGLISH HISTORY—SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 12$ 

874. Who then obtained the ascendency in England ? 

The Independents— the party to which Cromwell belonged. 

875. What disgraced this triumphant party? 

The trial and execution of the king (1649), seven years 
after both parties had appealed to arms. 

876. Was this execution a crime or a blunder? 

A blunder, since the death of Charles I. did not destroy 
the claims of Charles II., and, moreover, provoked sympathy. 
It was not a crime, since Charles had appealed to the sword, 
and the fortune of war had placed him in the hands of his 
enemies, who regarded his death as a military necessity. 

877. What was the next great event in Cromwell's career? 

The conquest of Ireland (161:9), as Lord Lieutenant, marked 
by great severities. 

878. What battle ended the civil war ? 

" The crowning mercy of Worcester," which resulted in the 
defeat and flight of Charles II., and the complete ascendency 
of Cromwell. 

879. How did Cromwell improve his victories ? 

He availed himself of the popular enthusiasm to assume 
supreme authority, under the title of " Lord Protector," and 
reign absolutely, as Charles had sought to reign. 

880. Why did not Parliament prevent the usurpation ? 
Cromwell had dissolved it, backed up by his army and the 

enthusiasm of his party. 

881. What services did Cromwell render to his country as supreme 
ruler ? 

He restored law and order, encouraged enterprise, rewarded 



126 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

learning, defeated foreign enemies, developed the resources of 
England, and bestowed religious liberty. 

882. What were the defects of Cromwell ? 

His visionary enthusiasm, which led him to believe he had 
a right to rule England as the strongest man ; and his Jesuiti- 
cal principles in making the end justify the means. 

883. Who was one of his greatest admirers and eulogists ? 

John Milton, whose glorious efforts in behalf of religious 
liberty were only excelled by his immortal poems. 

884. What other distinguished men flourished in England during the 
reign of Cromwell, 1649 — 1658 ? 

Sir Matthew Hale, who gave dignity to the courts of law ; 
Harvey, who discovered the circulation of the blood ; Hobbes, 
who speculated on philosophy ; Lord Napier, who invented 
logarithms ; George Fox, who founded the Society of 
Friends ; Bishop Usher, the chronologist, who wrote annals 
of the Old Testament; and Chillingworth, who defended Prot- 
estantism on Bible grounds alone. 

885. What English admiral greatly distinguished himself during the 
administration of Cromwell ? 

Admiral Blake, who raised the naval glory of England to a 
higher point than it had ever reached before. 

886. What were some of his victories ? 

Those over the Dutch, commanded by De Witt, De Euyter, 
and Yan Tromp, and afterwards over the Spaniards. 

887. What was the cause of the Dutch war ? 

Commercial jealousy, which led to the famous ITaviga- 
tion Act, which prohibited all nations from importing into 



EXGLISII HISTORY— SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 1 27 

England, in their bottoms, any commodity wliicli was not the 
growth or manufacture of their own country. 

888. How did this act affect the Dutch ? 

They were then the general carriers and factors of Europe, 
and it was an injury to their commerce. 

889. What was the result of the Spanish war ? 

Spain lost Jamaica, and a great many treasure ships and 
military prestige. 

890. What colonies in America had been successfully planted when 
Cromwell died, 1658? 

Yirginia, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, New 
York, Maryland, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and North 
Carolina. 

891. Who succeeded Oliver Cromwell to the Protectorate, on his 
death, 1658? 

His son Richard, an amiable but feeble man, and unlit to 
cope with the difficulties which surrounded him. 

892. What were those difficulties ? 

The cabals of discontented officers, and a general state of 
anarchy, which compelled him to resign in less than two years. 

893. Who restored the monarchy ? 

General Monk, afterwards Duke of Albemarle, one of the 
general officers of Oliver Cromwell, who commanded the army 
in Scotland. 

894. What were the, motives of Monk in turning against the family of 
his friend ? 

To deliver the nation from anarchy. Moreover, he per- 
ceived that the nation was wearied both with tlie rule of par- 



128 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

liament and the rule of the army, and hankered for the olden 
times. 

895. On what conditions was Charles Stuart restored ? 

None at all. He was restored in a torrent of national en- 
thusiasm, the reaction to the military despotism of Cromwell. 

896. Whom did he call around his throne as ministers and sup- 
porters ? 

Men of all parties. Tho Earl of Manchester, wlio had once 
led the parliamentary forces, he made lord chamberlain; Sir 
Edward Hyde, created Earl of Clarendon, was made lord chan- 
cellor and prime minister ; the Duke of Ormund, steward of 
the household ; the Earl of Southampton, high treasurer, and 
Sir Edward Nicholas, secretary of state. . 

897. Who was the most famous of these men ? 

The Earl of Clarendon, whose daughter married James II. 
and who wrote the history of the great rebellion — the earliest 
of the great English historians. 

898. What was the first act of the reign of Charles II., of historical 
importance ? 

The act of uniformity, 1662, which required all ministers 
to be reordained, and declare their assent to tlie Book of Com- 
mon Prayer and to take the oath of Non-resistance. 

899. What was the result of this act } 

About 2,000 Presbyterian and Independent ministers were 
ejected from their livings, and Episcopacy was restored as the 
national religion. Among the ejected were Baxter and Calamy. 

900. What exceedingly unpopular act did Charles II. commit soon 
after he felt secure on his throne ? 

Tie formed an alliance with Louis XI Y., and sold Dunkirk, 



ENGLISH HISTORY—SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 1 29 

one of the fruits of Cromwell's victories, to the French, for 
which he received an annual pension of £200,000. 

901. What illustrious patriot did Charles cause to be executed, against 
his promise to the last parliament ? 

Sir Henry Yane, who had filled high offices, and was the 
ornament of his party. 

902. What war broke out in 1665 ? 

A war with the Dutch, from commercial and naval jeal- 
ousy, in which France soon joined the Dutch. 

903. Who were the chief admirals of this naval war ? 
Albemarle and Prince Eupert on the part of the English ; 

De Kuyter and Van Tromp on the part of the Dutch ; and 
the Duke of Beaufort on the part of the French. 

904. What calamity happened to the city of London during this war, 
which ended with the peace of Breda, 1667 ? 

The great fire, which lasted three days and three nights, 
and which consumed St. Paul's Cathedral. 

905. What was the first political event of importance in the domestic 
government of England ? 

The dismissal and exile of Clarendon, and the formation of 
the " Cabal," mainly made up of Clifford, Ashley, Bucking- 
ham, Arlington, and Lauderdale, who virtually sold their 
country to the French king, and encouraged the king to en- 
croach on the liberties of England. 

906. What was the first of the royal encroachments ? 

The shutting up of the exchequer, where the bankers had 
deposited their funds, which was virtually the seizure of the 
money which belonged to individuals, and by which Charles 
gained £1,300,000, and the bankers failed. 



130 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

907. What other encroachments ? 

Charles imj^osed restrictions on the press ; took away the 
charter of the cor^^oration of the city of London ; caused juries 
to be fined who refused to act according to the direction of 
judges, and unlawfully increased taxation. 

908. What domestic event caused extraordinary popular agitations ? 
The " Popish Plot," one of the delusions of the times, 

which was based on the perjuries of Dr. Titus Gates, a broken- 
down clergyman, in reference to the schemes of the Catholics, 
and which led to their civil disabilities, which lasted one hun- 
dred and thirty years. 

909. What celebrated act of parliament followed these accusations ? 
The Test Act, 1678, by which no members of the House of 

Lords or Commons could sit or vote without openly rej)udi- 
ating virtually all the distinguished doctrines of the Koman 
Catholic Church. 

910. What more celebrated act was soon after passed ? 

The " Habeas Corpus " Act, one of the safeguards of Eng- 
lish liberty. 

911. Through whose instrumentality was this act passed } 

The Earl of Shaftesbury, an exceedingly able man, who 
espoused the popular party and opposed the court, which he 
had formerly served, and most unscrupulously. 

912. What was the " Rye House Plot" (1683) ? 

A conspiracy to overturn the government and destroy the 
life of the king, now very un]3opular. 

913. What illustrious men suffered, justly or unjustly, from supposed 
complicity with this plot ? 

Lord William Kussell, son of the Earl of Bedford, and Al- 



ENGLISH HISTORY-SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 131 

gernon Sidney, son of the Earl of Leicester, distinguished for 
his liberal ideas. 

0,4. What infamous judge condemned these patriots ? 

Judge Jeilries-the judge who imprisoned Baxter, and wlio 
converted England into a sliambles. 

Q 1 5, What great political parties arose in this reign ? 

Whigs and Tories-tems of reproach ; the former a Scotch 
word for low seditious fanatics, and the latter an Irish designa- 
tion of despoiled papists. 

qi6 What great men flourished in this reign? 

Selden, the lawyer; Dttgdale, ^^^^ '^'^^j^i^^'^f " ' /™: 
Taylor, Pierson, and Fuller, divines of the Church of England 
Baxter and Ca amy, leaders of the Presbyterians ; Algernon 
sSey, the politidl essayist; Sir Thomas Browne, the physi- 
^iln William Penn, the Quaker; Izaak Walton author 
the "Angler" ; Sir Isaac Newton, mathematician ; Dry den and 
Wallet poets; Sir Christopher Wren, the architect: Sir Wil- 
iTaL Temple/the diplomatist; Cudworth, the tiieologian and 
phLophe'r;' John lunyan, author of "The Pilgum's Pro- 
gress ; " and Andrew Marvel, the wit. 
917 Who succeeded Charles 11. in 1685 ? 
His brother, the Duke of York, as James II. 
0,8. What marked his short reign of three years ? _ 
The continuation of an arbitrary policy, the increase of the 
regular army without the sanction of parliament, the employ- 
mfnt of C-iholics, the persecution of Dissenters, and the re- 
establishment of the Court of High Commission. 
9,9 What especial cruelties signalized the reign ? 
The fines and executions inflicted by Judge Jeffries, who 
was made lord chancellor, and of Colonel Kirke. 



132 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

920. What great criminals suffered ? 

The Duke of Monmouth and the Earl of Argyle, for trea- 
son and rebellion. 

921. What did James II. obviously aim at besides the restoration of 
absolute power ? 

The re-establishment of the Catholic religion. The wliole 
power of Ireland was entrusted to Catholics, and the great 
offices of state were taken away from Protestants. 

922. What precipitated the ruin of the king ? 

His attempt to impose a Catholic president on Magdalen 
College, at Oxford, and the arrest of Protestant bishops who 
refused to obey his mandates. 

923. What prevented his possible arrest, trial, and execution by an 
outraged nation ? 

His flight to France, where he was protected by Louis 
XIY. 

924. Who was summoned to occupy the vacant throne ? 

William Prince of Orange, who had married Mary, daugh- 
ter of James II. by Anne Hyde. He was also the son of 
Mary, daughter of Charles I. 

925. What was the bequest of the revolution which drove James II. 
from the throne ? 

The famous Declaration of Rights, which recapitulated the 
privileges which had been gained by one hundred and fifty 
years' contention. 

926. What are some of these privileges ? 

That money could not be lawfully raised to carry on the 



ENGLISH HISTORY— SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, 1 33 

government without the vote of parliament ; that a standing 
army could not be maintained in time of peace without its 
consent ; that the people had a right to choose their represen- 
tatives freely, and that members of parliament had the right 
of unrestricted debate. 

927. What were the first events of importance in the reign of William 
III. ? 

The rebellion of Ireland, the war with France, and the dis- 
cussion of great constitutional questions. 

928. What produced the rebellion of Ireland ? 

The intrigues of James II. to regain his throne. 

929. Who headed the Irish rebellion during the reign of William ? 

The Earl of Tyrconnel, whom Lord Clarendon, as lord- 
lieutenant, on the Restoration, had made commander-in-chief of 
the army in Ireland, in order to pacify the Catholics. 

930. Whom did William send against Tyrconnel ? 

Marshal Schomberg, who had distinguished himself in the 
wars against Louis XIV. But soon after William himself 
appeared in Ireland, with an army of 24,000 besides the 16,000 
under Schomberg. 

931. What decided the fate of James II. and the island ? 

The battle of the Boyne, 1690, followed by the capture of 
Limerick. 

932. What progress did the English make in constitutional liberty 
during this reign ? 

The liberty of the press was obtained, the House of Com- 
mons secured the complete control of the public revenues, 



134 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

judges acquired the right to remain in office during good 
behavior, and the succession to the throne was forever secured 
to Protestant princes. 

933. What animosities were gradually allayed during this reign ? 
Those against the Catholics, which had been exceedingly 

bitter since the Restoration, and which led to great injustice. 

934. What chiefly engrossed the attention of the king ? 

The war with Louis XIY., whom he detested, and w^hom 
he resolved to humble at any cost. 

935. What was the result of the French war? 

Nothing decisive, although bloody battles were fought 
both on the sea and on the land. 

936. What were the services which William III. rendered to his own 
country and to England ? 

He delivered them from Louis XIY., whose ambition was 
unscrupulous, and he advanced the Protestant cause. 

937. What great moneyed institutions were chartered during this reign ? 
The Bank of England (1694) and the Bank of Scotland. 

938. What benevolent institution was established about the same time ? 
Greenwich Hospital for disabled seamen. 

939. What was one of the last acts of William which had great politi- 
cal importance ? 

The renewed war against Louis XIV. called the ^' War of 
the Spanish Succession," 1701, but which he did not live to 
carry on. He died the next year, in consequence of a fall 
from liis horse. 



ENGLISH HISTORY— SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. I35 

94c. What distinguished men adorned the reign of William III. ? 
Sir Isaac Newton, Bisliop Burnet, Archbishop Tillotson, 
Dr. Bentlej, the great critic, and Dryden, the poet. 

References.— Clarendon's History of the Rebellion, Carljie's Life of Cromwell, 
Hume's and Lingard's Histories of England, Macanlay's Essays, Macaulay's History of 
England, Neals' History of the Puritans, Lives of Bacon, Milton, and Russell's Modern 
Europe, Life of Newton, Guizot's History of English Revolution, Foster's Lives of the 
Statesmen of the Commonwealth, Fox's History of James II., Burnet's History of his Own 
Times, Lord Mahon's History of England, Hallam's Constitutional History, Coxe's Life 
of Marlborough. 



CHAPTER XL 

Continental Eukope in the Eighteenth Century. 

941. What event marked the latter days of Louis XIV. ? 

The war of the Spanish succession, caused by the elevation 
of a Bourbon prince to the Spanish throne. 

942. What were the decisive battles of this v^ar ? 

The battles of Blenheim (1704), Ramillies (1706), and Mal- 
plaquet (1709), which resulted in the expulsion of the French 
from Germany and Flanders. 

943. What great generals distinguished themselves in this war ? 
The Duke ot' Marlborough and Prince Eugene. 

944. What was the bequest of Louis XIV. to his successors ? 

A large national debt, an impoverished country, a deci- 
mated people, and a tarnished military name. 

945. Who succeeded him ? 

His great grandson, Louis XV., a boy of five years of age, 
in the year 1717. 

946. To whom was the regency of the kingdom entrusted ? 

The Duke of Orleans, a profligate prince, who complicated 
the difficulties with which he was surrounded. 

947. Who was his prime minister? 

Cardinal Duljuis, one of the most profligate ecclesiastics in 
history, who encouraged all kinds of extravagance. 



EUROPE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. l^ 

948. What noted financier flourished at this time who promised won- 
derful things to the embarrassed government ? 

John Law, a Scotch banker, who devised a plan to reduce 
the national debt. 

949. What was his scheme ? 

The creation of the Mississippi Company, endorsed by the 
government, the shares of which rose to a fabulous amount, 
since it promised enormous dividends, from the supposed rich- 
ness of Louisiana in the precious metals. 

950. How did this company reHeve the government ? 

It was connected with a bank, of which Law was the di- 
rector, which indefinitely issue 1 notes, secured by the shares 
of the Mississippi Company. In other words, the national 
creditor was paid in the notes of the bank, with which he 
bought shares in the company, which, for some time, continued 
to rise in value rapidly. 

951. What was the upshot of the whole thing ? 

A scheme to increase the paper currency and supersede the 
use of gold and silver. The paper currency, or the notes of 
the bank, was based on the supposed value of the shares of 
the Mississippi Company, rather than on specie. 

952. What was the natural consequence of this delusion ? 

A great inflation in the value of all kinds of property, from 
the abundance of paper money, so that everybody felt rich 
and became extravagant. 

953 What broke the spell ? 

A run on the bank, which was obliged to pay gold and 
bilver un demand, and was thert;fore broken. 



138 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

954. What effect had the bursting of the bubble on the people? 

It filled them with indignation, for they had been cheated 
by delusive promises, and had lost their investment. When the 
shares of tlie company were seen to be valueless, the bank was 
broken, for its wealth was based on these shares, and not on 
gold and silver. 

955. How was the government profited ? 

It had paid off half of the national debt by the issue of 
worthless paper money. 

956. What great law of political economy was settled by this de- 
lusion ? 

That the notes of banks have no value beyond what can be 
redeemed by gold and silver, or by government bonds in which 
a nation has confidence. 

957. When did the regency of the Duke of Orleans close ? 

On the death of Cardinal Dubois (1723), when Louis XV. 
was declared of age. 

958. Who ruled France respectably for seventeen years as his prime 
minister ? 

Cardinal Fleury, who relieved the government from finan- 
cial embarrassments, and instituted a peace policy. 

959. What memorable quarrel marked his administration ? 

The controversy between the Jesuits and Jansenists in ref- 
erence to the doctrines of Grace and Free Will, the old ques- 
tions discussed by St. Augustine and Pelagius. 

960. What great genius entered into this controversy ? 

Pascal, who had distinguished himself by his "Provincial 
Letters," in which he ridiculed the casuistry of the Jesuits. 



EUROPE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 139 

961. What political result had this controversy ? 

A quarrel between the king and the parliament of Paris, 
which took the side of the Jansenists. 

962. Who succeeded Cardinal Fleury as prime minister ? 

The Duke of Choiseul, who arose to power by the favor of 
Madame de Pompadour. 

963. Who was Madame de Pompadour ? 

The prodigal and imperious mistress of Louis XY., who 
ruled the king and the nation, and virtually appointed all the 
great public functionaries. 

964. What memorable event is connected with the reign of this royal 
favorite ? 

The fall of the Jesuits, whom she hated and persecuted. 

965. How were they treated ? 

They were banished from all the countries of Europe where 
the Bourbons had influence, and the revocation of their order 
was even decreed by Pope Clement XIV. 

966. Of what were the Jesuits accused ? 

Of interference with political affairs, of casuistry, and of a 
systematic attempt to fetter the human mind. 

967. Who were the great enemies of the Jesuits in league with 
Madame de Pompadour ? 

The infidel philosophers of the age, who led the fashiona- 
ble and learned classes. 

968. Who was the most famous of these philosophers ? 
Voltaire, whose popularity was unparalleled. 



140 POINTS OF H J STORY. 

969. For what was he distinguished ? 

For his wit, sarcasm, learning, cynicism, and infidel specula- 
tions. He was poet, philosophePj historian, and critic. He 
wrote 200 volumes. 

970. In what consists his real excellence ? 

His transcendent clearness of statement, and marvellous 
felicity of style. 

971. What other remarkable men followed him in savage attacks on 
religion } 

Helvetius d'Olback, Marquis Mirabeau, Diderot, and 
d'Alembert — all men of great eloquence and learning. 

972. What still greater men adorned the literature of France in this 
reign ? 

Montesquieu, who wrote the " Spirit of Laws," and Kous- 
seau, who furnished the watchwords of the French Revolution. 
He blended truth wdth error so plausibly that his writings had 
a prodigious influence. 

973. What military enterprises marked the reign of Louis XV. ? 
The wars between France and England in reference to 

colonial possessions, and those which grew out of the seven 
years' war, and the war of the Austrian succession, which were 
all interlinked with each other. 

974. What was the first war of importance in which the French 
engaged ? 

That of the Austrian succession, in which the French were 
opposed by the English in North America. 

975. When did the battle of Fontenoy take place ? 

In 1745, won by Marshal Saxe over the English ; the only 



EUROPE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. I4I 

success of importance which the French gained in war during 
this reign, but bahinced by the loss of Louisburgh. 

976. When did this war end ? 

In 1748, by the treaty of Aix la Chapelle, by which the 
French were stripped of their Flemish conquests. 

977. When did the seven years' war commence ? 

In 1756, caused by the seizure of Silesia by the king of 
Prussia, which involved all Europe. 

978. Who was the king of Prussia ? 

Frederic II., who became king in 1740, and who signalized 
his accession to the throne by unexampled robberies, especially 
from Maria Theresa. 

979. Who was Maria Theresa ? 

The Empress of Germany, and hereditary Queen of Hun- 
gary and Bohemia, who became empress by virtue of the 
Praocmatic Sanction. 



~h' 



980. What was the Pragmatic Sanction ? 

A law which the Emperor Charles passed, by which his 
daughter, Maria Theresa, became empress — a claim guaranteed 
by the leading powers of Europe. 

981. What induced Frederic II. to seize Silesia, a province which be- 
longed to Austria? 

Passion for military aggrandizement, which has since marked 
the kings of Prussia. 

982. Who were leagued against Frederic II., in order to wrest from 
Prussia the stolen province of Silesia and restore it to Maria Theresa ? 

Fiance, Kussia, Sweden, and Saxony. 



142 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

983. Why did not England join this league ? 

Because it was hostile to France on account of colonial 
possessions which it wished to gain. 

984. What was the first great battle of the allied forces against 
Frederic II. ? 

That of LowositZj in 1756, by which Frederic gained posses- 
sion of Saxony. 

985. What was the next eventful battle? 

That of Kossbach, in 1757, in which Frederic defeated the 
French, though double in number. 

986. What was the next memorable battle ? 

That of Leuthen, in which Frederic defeated the Aus- 
trians. 

987. What was the third great battle of the war ? 

That of Zorndorff, in 1758, in which Frederic defeated the 
Russians. 

988. What was the effect of these great victories ? 

They gave an imperishable military fame to the Prussian 
king; but, as the forces against him were still overwhelming, 
he was forced to fight on the defensive, and was nearly re- 
duced to despair. 

989. What rescued Frederic from his perils ? 

The death of the Russian empress, Elizabeth, in 1762, and 
the accession of Peter III., who was an admirer of the Prussian 
hero. 

990. What closed the war ? 

The peace of Hubertsburg (1763), by which Frederic was 
enabled to retain Silesia. 



EUROPE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 1 43 

991. What were the immediate consequences of this war? 

The exhaustion of Prussia, the humiliation of France, the 
crippling of Austria, and thfe aggrandizement of England, who 
rifled the French of their possessions, both in America and the 
East Indies. 

992. What were the ultimate results ? 

The inauguration of a military policy in Prussia, to which 
all other interests were made subordinate ; the rise of the mari- 
time greatness of England ; and the seeds of discontent planted 
in France, which prepared the way for revolution. 

993. What great political crime marked this century ? 

The partition of Poland between Eussia, Austria, and 
Prussia. 

994. What Polish hero attempted to rescue his country from political 
ruin? 

Kosciusko, who for some time held his enemies at bay. 

995. What great sovereign reigned in Russia after the death of Peter 
III. in 1762? 

Catherine II., a German by birth, memorable for her abili- 
ties and her vices ; supposed to have murdered her husband, 
Peter III. 

996. What great war did she engage in ? 

That against the Turks, from 1768 to 1774, in which 
Turkey lost Wallachia, Moldavia, Bessarabia, and the Crimea, 
and by which Russia also gained the free navigation of the 
Black Sea. 

997. What distinguished men were her ministers and favorites ? 
Alexis Orloff and Prince Potemkin, disgraced by every 



144 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

vice, but successful in war. Both received great honors and 
rewards, and enjoyed great power. 

998. What can be said in praise of Catherine II. ? 

She aggrandized Kussia, pursued an enlightened policy,^ 
and displayed great executive ability. 1 

999. Who gave the first great check to Turkey in this century ? 
The Russian generals Galitzen, Suwarrow, RomanzofP, 

Orloff, and Potemkin, who reduced Turkey to a second-class 
power. 

1000. What marked the closing years of the reign of Louis XV. in 
France ? 

The disgraceful prodigalities and extravagances of his 
court, and the general discontent of the nation. 

looi. What marked this century, until the French Revolution, in a 
literary point of view ? 

The comparative absence of men of original genius, espe- 
cially in Germany. 

1002. What state ceased to have political influence in this century .^ 
Yenice, which for 500 years had been the queen of the 
Adriatic. 

Eeferences.— De Tocqueville's Philosophical History of the Reign of Louis XV., 
Lacretelle's, Martin's, Voltaire's, and Crowe's Histories, Du Pin's Ecclesiastical History, 
Stephen's Essay on the Port RoyaUsts, Qninet's Fall of the Jesuits, Coxe's House of Aus- 
tria, Macaulay's Essay on Frederic II., Carlyle's History of Frederic ihe Great, Kohl- 
rausch's History of Germany, Russell's Modern History, Tooke's Life of Catherine II., 
Heeren's Modern History, Segur's Vie de Catharine IL, Fletcher's History of Poland, 
Smyth's Lectures, Coyer' s Vie de Sobieski. 



CHAPTER XIL 
England in the Eighteenth Centuby. 

1003. Who succeeded William III. in 1702? 
Queen Anne, daughter of James II. 

1004. What especially marked her reign ? 

The war of the Spanish succession, in which England 
liumbled the French monarchy. 

1005. Who was the great hero of this war on the side of England, 
after William III. ? 

The Duke of Marlborough, whose victories at Blenheim, 
Eamillies, and Malplaquet have already been mentioned, and 
which laid the foundation of the military power of England. 

1006. What may be said of this general? 

That he was singularly fortunate. He never lost a battle : 
he was munificently rewarded. He enjoyed great political in- 
fluence ; he was a popular favorite, but he lost his popularity 
with the queen and nation by his imperious pride, his venali- 
ties, and his avarice. 

1007. What other great statesman ruled England in this reign ? 
Lord Godolphin, the prime minister, who carried out the 

warlike policy of William III. 

1008. What political parties divided the nation with their bitter ani- 
mosities ? 

The Whigs and Tories, whose names originated during the 
reign of Charles II. 



146 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1009. What were their principles ? 

The Whigs were the advance or progress party, and sup- 
ported the war — the Tories were advocates of absohitism and 
High Church principles ; but both were equally aristocratic^ 
and led by the great nobles. 

1 010. Which party had the ascendency during this reign ? 

The Whigs at first ; but after the war closed, the Tories 
ruled at court and in parliament. 

loii. Who were the Tory leaders who ousted Marlborough, Godol- 
phin, and Sunderland ? 

Harley (Earl of Oxford), St. John (Lord Bolingbroke), the 
Duke of Buckingham, the Earl of Rochester, and Lord Dart- 
mouth were the most distinguished. 

1012. What event contributed to the overthrow of the Whigs ? 

The impeachment and trial of Dr. Henry Sacheverell, a 
violent Tory divine, who inculcated passive obedience and the 
persecution of Dissenters, which doctrines were popular with 
leading churchmen and with the universities. 

1 01 3. What great domestic event marked the reign of Anne ? 

The imion of Scotland with England, under the name of 
Great Britain, by which the Scotch were represented in parlia- 
ment. 

1014. What poets adorned this age ? 

Addison, Swift, Collins, Gay, Pope, Steele, and Arbuthnot 
were the most distinguished. 

1015. What distinguished the " wits of Queen Anne's reign ? " 
The elegance and polish of their language, and the bitter- 
ness of their political writings, for which they were rewarded 
by the great political leaders. 



ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. I47 

1016. By whom was Queen Anne succeeded, in 1714? 

By George I., Elector of Hanover, grandson of Elizabeth, 
only daughter of James I. 

10 1 7. Which political party did he support ? 

The "Whigs, to whom the Dukes of Bedford and Devon- 
shire belonged, as well as many other great nobles. 

1018. What was the first event of importance under the new Whig 
ministry, then headed by Lord Cowper? 

The invasion of Scotland by the Pretender, Prince James 
Frederick Edward Stuart, son of James II., supported by the 
more bigoted of the Tories, called the Jacobin faction. 

1 01 9. What great minister ruled the country the greater part of this 
reign ? 

Sir Eobert Walpole, afterwards Earl of Orford, a great 
financial genius. 

1020. What famous act of parliament was passed in 1716? 

The Septennial Act, by w^hich parliament was prolonged 
from three to seven years, the present term. 

1021. What singular mania intoxicated the nation during the admin- 
istration of Walpole ? 

The South Sea Company, similar in character to the Mis- 
sissippi Company, which proved so disastrous in France about 
the same time. 

1022. What was peculiar to this company ? 

It was a scheme, proposed by Sir John Blount, to make 
this company the sole national creditor, and which, favored by 
great monopolies, gave a bonus to the government of seven 
millions. 



148 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1023. How high did the stock rise in the general delusion ? 

To 1000 per cent, above par v^ilue, since it promised great 
dividends. But the bubble burst. 

1024. What effect did this have on the nation ? 

It produced general distress and bankruptcy, wliicli were 
only relieved by the financial genius of Walpole. 

1025. What marked the administration of Walpole? 

Th'? settlement of the national finances, the removal of com- 
mercial restrictions, and his peace policy — a policy afterwards 
carried out more fully by Sir Robert Peel and Mr. Gladstone. 

1026. What was the effect of this policy ? 

It gave a great impulse to trade and manufactures, which 
enriched England. 

1027. What disgraced his enlightened administration ? 

His unblushing and unscrupulous system of bribery, by 
which he was enabled to carry his measures through parlia- 
ment. 

1028. What great corporation dates to this reign ? 
The East India Company, incorporated 1708. 

1029. What was the first daily newspaper of England ? 

The Daily Coiirant^ 1709, the same year that the Tatler 
was published by Steele. 

1030. What literary and scientific men gave lustre to this reign ? 
Bentley, the critic and scholar, Eolingbroke, Sir Isaac 

Newton. 

1 03 1. What distinguished man was prosecuted for corruption in this 
reign ? 

Lord Chancellor Macclesfield, who was disgraced and fined 
£30,000. 



ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. I49 

1032. When did George II. succeed to the throne? 
In 1727, the year that Sir Isaac Newton died. 

1033. Who was his prime minister ? 

Sir Robert Walpole, who ruled England for thirty years. 

1034. What religious movement took place near the close of his 
memorable administration ? 

The rise of the Methodists, from the preaching of Wesley 
and Whitefield. 

1035. What made Wesley a great reformer ? 

His great piety and eloquence, and his marvellous power as 
an administrator and organizer. He was originally a clergy- 
man of the Church of England. He was the author of the 
ecclesiastical polity of the Methodists. 

1036. What marked the clergy of the Church of England at this 
period ? 

Great religious indifference. They were worldly, and 
given to fox-hunting and convivial pleasures with country 
squires. 

1037. What marked the Dissenters ? 

The Independents had become Arminian, and the Presby- 
terians were inclined to Socinianism. 

1038. What is meant by Arminianism ? 

Opposition to Calvinism in regard to Grace, Predestina- 
tion, and Free Will. It was not a sect but a doctrine, advo- 
cated by Arminius, a celebrated Dutch theologian, and bore 
great resemblance to the Pelagianism which St. Augustine had 
combated. 



150 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1039. What was Socinianism ? 

Also a system of theological doctrines, the most marked of 
which repudiated the divinity of Christ. In our times the 
Socinians are called Unitarians. 

1040. What marked English society in general during the reigns of 
George I. and II. ? 

A laxity of morals and indifference to the great questions 
which had agitated the preceding century. 

1041. What great man in America gained distinction during the 
administration of Walpole ? 

Benjamin Franklin, who published his "Poor Richard's 
Almanack " in 1732. 

1042. What great American divine flourished about this time ? 
Jonathan Edwards, the most able and logical of all the 

American divines, distinguished for his metaphysical divin- 
ity, one of the peculiarities of Puritan theology. 

1043. What was the condition of the American colonies when Frank- 
lin commenced his career ? 

The inhabitants were chiefly agriculturists, with small for- 
tunes and good morals, ruled by provincial governors — a 
body of men attached to their families and towns, and well 
grounded in the fundamental principles of religion and 
liberty 

1044. Who succeeded Sir Robert Walpole, in 1742, in the government 
of England i 

Lord Granville for a short time, and then Henry Pelham, 
and his brother, the Duke of Newcastle, who headed a great 
coalition of political leaders, both Whig and Tory. 



ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 15I 

1045. For what is the Pelham administration memorable ? 

For the attempt of the Young Pretender, Charles Edward, 
to recover the throne of his ancestors. 

1046. What was the result of the Scotch rebellion, 1745 ? 

The signal defeat of the Pretender, at Culloden, by the 
Duke of Cumberland. 

1047. What ultimately became of the exiled family of the Stuarts ? 
The Pretender, Charles Edward, died in Rome, 1788 ; and 

the last male heir of the house, the Cardinal of York, died at 
Rome, 1807. 

1048. What was the next event of importance in the history of Eng- 
land under George II. } 

The great war begun by Sir Robert Walpole, called the 
" War of the Austrian Succession," w^hich ultimately involved 
the European powers, and led to a sanguinary contest be- 
tween France and England. 

1049. What misfortunes had the English ? 

The defeat of General Braddock in America, and the fail 
uTe of the attack on Fort Du Quesne, near Pittsburgh. 

1050. What had these distant military operations in America to do 
with the war between France and England ? 

Both kingdoms had extensive colonial settlements in 
America, and it was maintained that the French encroached on 
the English colonies, with a view of possessing the whole of 
ISTortli America. 

105 1. What was the result of military operations on the continent of 
Europe between the French and English ? 

The defeat of the English by Marshal Saxe, at Fontenoy 



152 POINTS OF HISTORY, 

(1745), over the Duke of Cumberland, the subjugation of the 
Austrian Netherlands by the French, and the disgraceful fail- 
ure of Admiral Byng to relieve Minorca, which was captured 
by the French, 1756. 

1052. What was the result of these unfortunate military operations in 
America and the Netherlands ? 

They made the Pelham ministry unpopulai, and compelled 
a change. 

1053. Who succeeded the Duke of Newcastle in the government of 
Great Britain, 1756? 

William Pitt, really, though the Duke of Devonshire was 
nominally premier. 

1054. What marked the government of Pitt ? 

Exceeding vigor and ability. Louisburg was taken by 
General Amherst, Fort Du Quesne was abandoned, and Gen- 
eral Wolfe captured Quebec, which led to the complete con- 
quest of Canada and the ruin of the French cause in America. 

1055. What other successes attended the English arms? 
Conquests in the East Indies, by which the French were 

despoiled of their settlements, and the English power was 
finally settled on the Ganges, by Clive and Hastings. 

1056. What men gave the greatest impulse to human thought in Eng- 
land during the reign of George II. ? 

Bishop Butler, author of the " Analogy," and Berkeley, the 
idealist. 

1057. Who inaugurated a new era in fiction ? 

The novelists De Foe, Smollett, Richardson, and Fielding. 



ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 1 53 

1058. Who succeeded George II., in 1760? 

George III., soon after the victories of the English in 
Canada. 

1059. What was the condition of England on his accession ? 
Great political and commercial prosperity. The peace of 

Paris, 1763, which closed the seven years' war, established the 
naval supremacy of England. 

1060. Who was the prime minister of George III. on his accession ? 
William Pitt, who, however, resigned the following year, 

and became Earl of Chatham. 

1 06 1. Who succeeded Pitt? 

Lord Bute, who did nothing memorable, except to make 
peace with France. He was succeeded two years after by 
George Grenville. 

1062. What marked the administration of Grenville ? 

The prosecution of Wilkes for a libel on the government, 
and a scheme to tax the American colonies. 

1063. What gave to the prosecution of Wilkes so much political im- 
portance ? 

Because it was a virtual struggle between the people, who 
elected him to Parliament, and the House of Commons, who 
rejected him. 

1064. What was the moral effect of the quarrel between Wilkes and 
the House of Commons ? 

The commencement of public meetings and their influ- 
ence on English politics, and the increase of the power of the 
press. 



154 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1065. What was the political result of the persecution of Wilkes? 

It was so unpopular that it contributed to the resignation 
of Grenville, and Lord Eockingham became prime minister. 

1066. What other political event led to the fall of Grenville ? 

The Stamp Act, which Grenville devised as a precedent to 
tax the colonies. 

1067. What was the effect of the Stamp Act in America ? 

It created great disturbances, for the colonies would not 
submit to taxation without a representation of their interests 
in parliament. 

1068. What great English statesman opposed the Stamp Act? 
Edmund Burke, who gained great eclat, and became the 

leader of the opposition. 

1069. What marked the Rockingham administration ? 
The repeal of the Stamp Act, 1766. 

1070. Who succeeded the Marquis of Rockingham as prime minister? 
The Duke of Grafton, 1767, although Mr. Pitt, recently 

created Earl of Chatham, was virtually prime minister. 

1 07 1. What marked the administration of the Duke of Grafton ? 
The imposition of new taxes on the colony, in the shape of 

offensive duties, which produced renewed disturbances. 

1072. What was the consequence of these disturbances in England ? 
They led to the fall of the Duke of Grafton's ministry, 

1770, who was succeeded by Lord North. 

1073. What marked his ministry ? 

The repeal of the obnoxious duties, except that on tea, 



ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 1 55 

which he retained to show the right of England to tax 
America. 

1074. What resulted from this determination of the government to tax 
America ? 

Kenewed disturbances, popular riots, indignation meetings, 
revolutionary orations, and the violent measure of throwing 
overboard 342 chests of tea in Boston Harbor. 

1075. Who fanned the revolutionary spirit, of marked eloquence? 
Patrick Henry, of Virginia, John Adams, Josiah Quincy, 

and James Otis. 

1076. Who opposed the measures of Lord North in England ? 
Edmund Burke, the Earl of Chatham, Lord Camden, 

Colonel Barre, and Charles J. Fox, but without effect. 

1077. What measures did the government then take ? 

It declared the colonies in a state of rebellion, and at- 
tempted to coerce them. 

1078. What then resulted ? 

The battle of Lexington, 19th of April, which opened the 
Kevolutionary War, and led to the meeting of Congress, or 
the delegates from the thirteen States, and the appointment 
of George Washington as commander-in-chief. 

1079. What was the next important battle of the Revolutionary War ? 
That of Bunker Hill, 17th of June, 1775, which led, on 

00th sides, to great military preparations. 

1080. What marked the first campaign of 1775 ? 

The unsuccessful invasion of Canada, under General Mont- 
gomery and Benedict Arnold. 



156 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1 08 1. What marked the campaign of 1776 ? 

The evacuation of Boston by the English, under General 
Howe, the occupation of New York and Long Island, and the 
battles of Trenton and Princeton. 

1082. What was the great event of the year, and of the century ? 
The Declaration of Independence, 4th of July, which sur- 
prised Great Britain and cemented the union of the colonies. 

1083. What events of importance marked the campaign of 1777 ? 
The arrival of the Marquis of Lafayette, the evacuation of 

the Jerseys, the battles of Bennington and Brandywine, the 
capture of Philadelphia by the British, and the surrender of 
General Burgoyne to General Gates at Saratoga, which proved 
the impossibihty of England conquering America with what 
forces she could command, as predicted by Burke. 

1084. What v^as the condition of the American army after their great 
success ? 

Great sufferings at Yalley Forge, near Philadelphia, for 
lack of clothing and provisions, and the dissensions and jeal- 
ousies of the American generals. 

1085. What marked the campaign of 1780? 

The treason of Benedict Arnold, who sought to deliver 
West Point to the enemy, and the battle of Camden, gained by 
Lord Cornwallis over Gates. 

1086. What event practically settled the war ? 

The surrender of Lord Cornwallis, at Yorktown, in the 
next campaign of 1781. 

1087. When did the war close ? 

In 1783, when peace was declared, which led to the resig- 



I 



ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 1 5/ 

nation of Lord Korth, and intense national humiliation on the 
part of England, and equally intense enthusiasm on the part of 
the United States. 

1088. What constituted the great merit of Washington in his defence 
of American liberties ? 

His wonderful sagacity, intrepid moral courage, consum- 
mate prudence, lofty patriotism, profound wisdom, and trans- 
cendent dignity of character. 

1089. By whom was he most ably supported ? 

By the great patriotic orators of Congress, and Generals 
Gates, Green, Lincoln, Lee, Steuben, but most of all, by his 
aid-de-camp, Alexander Hamilton, whose intellectual resources 
were unbounded. 

1090. Who rendered important services to the American cause by his 
financial genius ? 

Robert Morris, of Philadelphia — a wealthy Quaker. 

1091. What aid did Benjamin Franklin render? 

His encouragement and diplomatic skill as minister to the 
courts of St. James and Yersailles. 

1092. Who were among the most eminent statesmen that asserted 
the cause of liberty ? 

Franklin, Adams, Jefferson, Jay, Pinckney, Quincy, Han- 
cock, Henry, Morris, Laurens. 

1093. What noted events in the domestic history of England took 
place during the administration of Lord North ? 

The efforts of John Howard in j^rison reform, the suicide 
of Lord Clive, the voyage of Captain Cook, the death of the 
Earl of Chatham, great improvements in the art of spinning 
cotton, the anti-Popery riots, headed by Lord Gordon. 



158 POINTS OF HISTORY. ~ 

1094. What important military events marked this administration, 
beside the American revolutionary war ? 

The conquests of Warren Hastings in India. ,«| 

1095. Who succeeded Lord North as prime minister? 

The Marquis of Rockingham, who made Burke paymaster 
^of the forces, and Charles Fox foreign secretary, and Sheridan 
under secretary of state, but who died in a few months. 

1096. Who succeeded him ? 

Lord Shelburne, who was soon after succeeded by Pitt, at 
the age of twenty-four, 1783 — the youngest statesman who 
ever held the reins of government in England as minister — 
a prodigy of talent and precocity. 

1097. What first made the ministry of Pitt memorable? 

The India Bill, which gave the political control of East 
Indian affairs to the ministry, instead of the East India Com- 
pany, under whose auspices the victories of Clive and Hastings 
liad been gained, by injustice, cnielty, and treachery. 

1098. What were the services of Hastings ? 

He rescued the possessions of the East India Company from 
Hyder Ali, the Mohammedan sovereign of Mysore, the most 
vigorous and powerful enemy that England ever encountered 
in the East, and added to the wealth and dominion of the 
company. 

1099. What political crimes did he commit in order to compass hi3 
end ? 

He robbed Benares, the sacred city of India, and one of the 
richest cities of the East, and took possession of its territories. 
He also robbed the Princesses of Oude, by which he was en- 
abled to carry on successful war on the Carnatic, and establish 
the British ascendency in the Indian peninsula. 



• ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 1 59 

1 100. What was the effect of the iniquities of Hastings on the 
EngHsh ? 

They excited great indignation, and lie was impeached at 
the bar of the House of Lords. His trial took place in West- 
minster Hall. 

iioi. Who conducted the prosecution ? 

Edmund Burke, one of the greatest and most upright 
statesmen of modern times, assisted by Charles James Fox, 
and Kichard Brinsley Sheridan. 

1 102. What was the result of this famous trial, which lasted eight 
years ? 

Hastings was acquitted, in consequence of his services and 
the assistance of the East India Company, and the apathy of 
men in power, and the private sympathies of George III. 

1 103. What was the moral effect of the trial ? 

It opened the eyes of the nation to the greed, unscrupu- 
lousness, and enormities of the East India Company, and led 
to the transfer of its political power to the hands of a board 
of control and a board of directors, appointed mainly by the 
government and the governor-general, 1784. 

1 104. Who became the first governor-general under the new con 
stitution ? 

Lord Cornwallis, sent to India in 1786. 



1 105. What marked his government ? 

War with Tippoo Saib, son of Hyder Ali, who lost half of 
his dominions, and four million pounds sterling. 

1 106. Who succeeded Lord Cornwallis? 

Sir John Shore, and he by the Marquis of Wcllesley, who 



l6o POINTS OF HISTORY. 

defeated Tippoo, and took possession of the Southern pen- 
insula. 

1 107. What subsequent war established British power in India ? 

A war with the Mahratta powers, in which Delhi, the 
capital of the great Mogul, fell into the hands of the English. 

1 108. What great subject was agitated in England about this time ? , 
That of the abolition of the slave trade, advocated with 

great eloquence by Wilberforce, who introduced a motion into 
the House of Commons for its abolition, in 1787. 

1 109. What other great measure was brought forward about this 
time ? 

A bill by Pitt for parliamentary reform, which, however, 
failed. 

mo. Wherein consisted the peculiar genius of Pitt? 
His financial skill, only paralleled by that of Alexander 
Hamilton in America. 

nil. What was one of his great financial measures? 

To remove restriction of trade between England and 
Ireland, by which the latter country had been impoverished, 
1784. 

1 112. What other financial measure had a great commercial value? 
His treaty of commerce with France in 1787, which abol- 
ished import duties. 

1 1 13. From what great man did Pitt learn his financial and commer- 
cial wisdom ? t 

Adam Smith, educated at Oxford, and afterwards professor 
at Glasgow. 



\ 



ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. l6l 

1 1 14. What was his great work, which revolutionized the science of 
political economy ? 

His " Wealth of I^ations," published 1776, one of the most 
remarkable books of modern times, in which the author 
showed that the source of wealth was labor and industry, 
rather than precious metals, and that labor should be free and 
unrestricted. 

11 15. What great inventions took place in England a little before this 
period, which greatly added to her wealth ? 

That of the spinning-machine, in 1768, by Arkwright ; of 
the spinning- jenny, in 1764, by Hargreaves ; and of the mule, 
by Compton, in 1776. 

1 1 16. What was the effect of these improvements in weaving ? 
They turned Lancashire into a hive of industry. 

1 1 17. What other contemporaneous inventions added to the wealth 
of England ? 

The potteries of Staffordshire, established by Wedgwood in 
1763. 

1 1 18. What great internal improvements marked England at this 
time ? 

A series of canals, which joined the Trent with the Mereey, 
the Thames with the Trent, the Forth with the Clyde ; also 
a great improvement in post-roads. 

1 1 19. What was the most wonderful invention of all? 

The discovery of the power of steam by Watt, in 1765. 

1 120. What great political agitation marked the ministry of Pitt? 
'That which grew out of the French Revolution, causing 

riots and disturbances, the chief of which were those of Bir- 
mingham, during which Dr. Priestley greatly suffered. 



l62 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1 121. Who was Dr. Priestley? 

A dissenting minister, distinguished chiefly for his philo- 
sophical writings, and for his discoveries in natural science. 

1 122. What eminent actor was his contemporary } 
Garrick, the ornament of the British stage. 

1 1 23. Who was remarkable as a painter at this time.? 

Sir Joshua Reynolds, whose portraits are still greatly 
admired. 

1 1 24. Who was the most remarkable man in the field of literature 
during the early part of the administration of Pitt ? 

Samuel Johnson, wliose greatest work was an English dic- 
tionary. He was also poet, essayist, biographer, and moralist, 
and liad great individuality of character. 

1 125. Who was the best poet of this period ? 

Probablv Oliver Goldsmith, whose " Deserted Yillage " is 
an immortal production. 

1 1 26. What still greater man than either of these was a member of 
the Turk's Head Club } 

Edmund Burke, whose greatest claim to immortality is his 
" Reflections on the French Revolution," published in 1790, in 
which he preached a crusade against the revolutionists. 

1 1 27. What other memorable authors were contemporary with Gold- 
smith and Johnson ? 

Bishop Lowth, author of " Hebrew Poetry," and Paley, 
author of Moral Philosophy. 

1 1 28. What policy did Pitt pursue in reference to French affairs ? 
That of conciliation and peace ; but he was at length forced 

into war, in 1793. 



ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 1 63 

1 1 29. What important embassy was sent to China on the breaking 
out of the war ? 

That of Lord Macartney, which was unsuccessful. 

1 1 30. What important accession to the British empire in Africa 
about this time ? 

The capture of the Cape of Good Hope, by Admiral El- 
phinstone, 1795. 

1 131. What great naval victory shed glory on England in 1797 ? 

That of J^elson over the Spaniards off Cape St. Yincent. 

1 132. What general shed lustre on the British arms in India ? 
Lord Wellesley. 

1 133. What venerable man died the last year of this century? 
George Washington. 

References.— Lord Mahon's History of England, Coxe's Memoirs of Walpole, Boling 
broke's State of Parties, Coxa's History of the Pelham Administration, Horace w'alpole's 
Reminiscences, Jesse's Memoirs of the Pretenders, Ray's Bistory of the Rebellion Wal- 
pole's Memoirs of George II., Doddiiigton's Diary, Elphinstone's and Mill's Histories of 
India, Macaulay's Essays on Clive and Hastings, Tomline's Life of Pitt, Belsham's History 
of George III., Walpole's Life of Fox, Annual Register, Schlosser's Modern History 
Moore's Life of Sheridan, Burke's Works. 



CHAPTEK XIII. 
The French Revolution, and Napoleon Bonaparte. 

1134. In what year did Louis XVI. succeed to tiie throne of France ? 

The year 1774, when he was nineteen years of age, hav- 
ing married Marie Antoinette, daughter of Maria Theresa, of 
Austria. 

1 135. What was the legacy he inherited from his grandfather, Louis 
XV.? 

A debt of four thousand million livres, probably equal to 
about $2,000,000 in our time. 

1 1 36. What other difficulties was he compelled to meet? 

The discontents of his subjects, fanned by the infidel phi- 
losophers and political economists. 

1 1 37. Who was his first prime minister? 

Count Maurepas, an old courtier, who was far from com- 
prehending the situation of public affairs. 

1 138. Who succeeded Maurepas, whom the people clamored the king 
to dismiss ? 

Turgot, who desired to effect reforms, but was not able. 

1 1 39. What great man co-operated with Turgot in aiming at re- 
forms ? 

Necker, the finance minister, a banker from Geneva. 

1 140. What baffled these reformers ? 

The annual deficit, on account of the expenses of the court " 



i 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 1 65 

and army, and general mismanagement, and above all the op- 
position of the nobles, so that Turgot was compelled to resign, 
and Calonne succeeded him. 

1 141. How did he perform his difficult tasks ? 

By adopting substantially the plans of Turgot, which were 
those of reform ; so that he, although previously in the interests 
of the aristocracy, raised a storm of execration from tlie privi- 
leged orders, so that he too was obliged to resign. 

1 142. What then stared the nation in the face ? 
National bankruptcy and general disintegration. 

1 143. What remedy was proposed as a last resort ? 

The convocation of the States-general, or the meeting of 
the three estates — the nobles, the clergy, and the representatives 
of the people. 

1 144. Who was minister when this meeting was definitely fixed ? 
!N^ecker, whom the king was compelled to recall — an able 

financier, but not great enough for tlie public exigencies. 

1 145. What controversy distracted the nation in reference to the 
meeting of the States-general ? 

Whether the States-general, which had not been assembled 
for 200 years, should meet, as before, in three separate cham- 
bers, or form a single assembly, in which the third estate 
should have a double number of votes. 

1 146. What side did Necker favor ? 

That the third estate should have a double number of votes, 
but he was silent on the main question. 

1 147. When did the States-general, composed of 1,200 persons, meet ? 
The fifth of May, 1789 — the inauguration of an immense 

future, to which the revolution dates. 



1 66 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1 148. What was the first blunder on the part of the ministers of the 
crown ? 

Thej should have imperatively decided how the assembly 
should meet, but this question they left to the three estates. 

1 149. And what was the result ? 

A long strife between the three estates, which ended in the 
assumption of the third estate that this body composed the 
representatives of the nation alone. 

1 1 50. On whom rests the responsibility of cutting the knot ? 

The Abbe Sieyes, deputy from Paris, a theoretical politician. 
" We," said he, "represent ninety-six parts of the whole nation : 
the people is sovereign ; we, therefore, as its representatives, 
constitute ourselves as a national representation." 

1 1 51. What did this declaration practically amount to ? 

Open war between theoretical principles and existing rights 
and institutions. 

1 1 52. Who was the great original oracle and propounder of these 
theoretical principles ? 

Rousseau, who advocated in his " Social Contract," that the 
majority cannot err and ought to rule, and that what is not 
supported by reason should no longer exist. 

1 1 53. What great statesman looms up, at this time, in the history of 
France ? 

Mirabeau, a nobleman by birth, but who abjured his rank 
to become a deputy of the three estates. 

1154. What were his views in this crisis of affairs ? 

An abolition of feudal privileges and a new form of gov- 
ernment, but to be effected in a constitutional way, and in 



THE FRENCH RE VOL U TION. I (>^ 

furtherance of public order. His principles were radical, but 
his mode was conservative. 

1 155. What did he propose to Necker .? 

Co-operation in reform ; but his overtures were rejected, 
since I^ecker, the prime minister, was envious of his talents, 
and detested his private character, sullied by imprudence and 
crimes. 

1 1 56. What was the result of the commons decreeing themselves as 
the national assembly, which was an open usurpation and defiance of the 
rights of the nobles and clergy } 

A series of revolutionary decrees, or laws, which swept 
away the old regime. 

1 1 57. By whom was the national assembly sustained? 

By the people of Paris, and various revolutionary clubs, 
whose violence destroyed the power of the government, and 
produced a general demoralization, which reached even to the 
army. 

1 1 58. What great act of violence opened the revolution ? 

The destruction of the Bastille, a state prison fortress, by 
the people, the garrison making no proper defence. 

1 1 59. What followed this violence ? 

The flight of 'many of the nobles from France, a general 
panic throughout France, and the formation of a National 
Guard, on the proposal of Mirabeau, at the head of which was 
placed La Fayette. 

1 1 60. What was the first most important revolutionary measure on 
the part of the national assembly ? 

The abolition of feudalism. In one night the assembly 



1 68 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

decreed the abolition of serfdom, the suppression of imperial 
jurisdiction, the redemption of tithes, the equality of taxes, 
the suppression of pensions, and the admission of all citizens 
to civil and military employments. It then proceeded to abol- 
ish the law of primogeniture, all armorial bearings, all honorary 
titles, all appellations of rank. 

1161. What did the assembly attack next? 

The clergy. It confiscated the church property, which 
produced a yearly revenue of 1,800,000 livres. 

1 162. What was the plea for the confiscation of the church property, 
the gift of kings and bishops and nobles for several centuries ? 

That it belonged to the nation, and therefore that the rep- 
resentatives of the nation had a right to dispose of it, in accord- 
ance with the doctrines of Rousseau, and the suggestion ot 
reason. 

1 163. If this plea could be sustained, what doctrine logically follows? 
That the property of all charitable institutions, all colleges, 

and all churches may be confiscated lawfully, when money is 
needed by the state. 

1164. What next occupied the attention of the assembly? 

The formation of a constitution which should limit or 
abolish royal authority, which led to the formation of three 
great parties. 

1 165. What was the most powerful of these parties, at first? 

The Girondists, or the centre — men who advocated radical 
reforms, but not by violence. 

1 166. What party gradually got the ascendency ? 

The left — the extreme men, as led by Hobespierre. 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 169 

1 167. Who controlled the left? 

The clubs of the Palais Royal, in which figured the most 
violent and bloody politicians of the day, led by Danton and 
Marat, and which virtually became all powerful, since they 
intimidated the assembly. 

1 168. What position had Mirabeau in the work of revolution ? 

The very highest. He led the assembly. He was the 
greatest statesman of the revolution. Had he lived he might 
have saved France, but he died in 1791, worn out with ex- 
cesses and labors. 

1 169. Who was Talleyrand ? 

Bishop of Autun, one of the leaders of the revolution, 
afterwards a great diplomatist. He celebrated high mass at 
the Champ de Mars, in 1790, at the great national federation 
— that imposing mockery, when the king was made to swear to 
the new constitution. 

1 170. What, then, was the state of France at the close of the year 
1791 ? 

Anarchy, soon succeeded by violence and crime. 

1 171. When did Necker resign ? 

In 1790, unable to stem the excesses which had deprived 
the king of executive power. 

1 172. What great folly did the king commit in 1791 ? 

He attempted to fly from his kingdom and join the Bour- 
bon princes at Coblentz and Worms,^with a view of conquer- 
ing the revolution. 

1 173. What great events marked the year 1792 ? 

The invasion of France by Prussia, the deposition and im- 



170 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

prisonment of Louis XYI., the victories of Dumonriez over the 
invaders of France, the ascendency of the Jacobin orators, and 
the abolition of the monarchy. 

1 1 74. What marked the year 1793? 

War with England, trial and death of Louis XYL, coalition 
of European powers against France, institution of a committee 
of public safety with absolute power, the reign of terror, and 
the execution of Marie Antoinette. 

1 175. Who were the monsters that ruled France at this time? 
Robespierre, Danton, and Marat, the last of whom was 

assassinated by Charlotte Corday. 

~ 1 1 76. What marked the year 1794 in France? 

Disgust of the nation in view of the excesses of the reign 
of terror, and a reaction, followed by the execution of Robes- 
pierre, Danton, and Camille Desmoulins, with seventy-one 
others of his party. 

1 1 77. What marked the history of France in 1795 ? 

The end of the reign of terror, the inauguration of a new 
constitution, the reign of five directors, of whom Barras and 
Carnot were the most influential, and the defence of Paris en- 
trusted to I^apoleon Bonaparte, who had distinguished himself 
at the siege of Toulon, in 1793. 

1 178. What marked the year 1796? 

The victories of Xapoleon in Italy, to the army of which 
he had been appointed general-in-chief by the directory. 

1 179. What great treaty established peace in 1797 ? 

The treaty of Campo Formio, October 17th, by which 
Venice was ceded to Austria, the Ionian Isles and the Nether- 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. I /I 

lands to France, and which enabled Kapoleon, after two bril- 
liant campaigns, to return to Paris. 

1 1 80. What marked the year 1798? 

The Egyptian campaign of Napoleon, and the defeat of his 
fleet by Lord Is"elson. 

1 181. What took place in 1799, of great political importance? 

The return of I^^apoleon from Egypt, and the coup d'etat 
which changed the government, and made Napoleon first 
consul. 

1 182. What was the sequence of the French Revolution ? 

The establishment of a military dictatorship under Na- 
poleon. 

1 183. What was the great error of the revolution ? 

The attempt to secure reform by violence, instead of con- 
stitutional resistance. 

1 184. What were the great crimes of the revolution ? 

The deposition, trial, and execution of the king ; the spo- 
liation of the clergy, and excesses of the reign of terror, which 
led to the decimation of the nobility, and the cruel execution 
of some of the best men in France, including Condorcet and 
Lavoisier, the chemist. 

1 185. What were the follies of the revolution ? 

The inexperience of the new legislators, and the formation- 
of constitutions which were based on impracticable theories, un- 
supported by and hostile to human experience. The greatest 
absurdity w^as the dream of liberty before the nation was fit 
for it. 



172 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1 1 86. What were some of the substantial and permanent benefits of 
the French Revolution ? 

The awful warning to wicked and tyrannical governments, 
the abolition of feudal distinctions and privileges, the cur- 
tailment of the power of the clergy, and a preparation, through 
blood and slaughter, for free institutions. 

1 187. What is the upshot of the whole matter ? 

That sanguine reformers pursued a good end with bad 
means, so that the experiment of liberty failed. 

1 1 88. What eminent men in France adorned the age in spite of the 
general wickedness and misery ? 

JSTecker, the financier; Turgot, the statesman; Condorcet, 
the philosopher ; the Marquis de la Fayette ; Buffon, the natu- 
ralist ; David and Yernet, painters ; Lavoisier, the chemist ; the 
Abbe Eaynal, philosopher; Lavater, the natural philosopher. 
In 1799 La Place commenced the publication of the " Meca- 
nique Celeste," and Cuvier his " Comparative Anatomy." 

1 189. What noted invention took place in 1783 } 
The use of stereotype plates in printing. 

1 1 90. What other inventions marked the close of the century ? 

The introduction of gas and of vaccination, and the extrac- 
tion of sugar from the beet root. 

1 191. What great German authors flourished at the close of the 
century ? 

Kotzebue, the dramatist ; Wieland, Schiller, Goethe, Zim- ' 
mermann, and Kant, the philosopher. 

1 1 92. What politically marked the close of the eighteenth century ? 
The victories and ascendency of I^apoleon, the brilliant 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 173 

administration of William Pitt, the great career of Nelson, 
English conquests in India, the increase of the power of Russia, 
the extinction of Poland, the fall of the Italian republics, the 
death of Catherine IL, of Burke and Washington, and the pro- 
motion of the Marquis of Wellesley, afterwards Duke of Wel- 
lington. 

1 193. What marked the close of the century in a literary and moral 
point of view ? 

The great revival of learning in Germany, and educational 
and philanthropic movements in England, and a reaction to the 
infidel philosophy of Prance. 

1 1 94. What great female writer arose to distinction at the close of the 
century ? 

Madame de Stael, hated and persecuted by Napoleon. 

1 195. What was the first act of importance performed by Napoleon as 
first consul ? 

He made overtures of peace to Great Britain, which were 
rejected. He was forced to continue hostilities, and against a 
coalition of powerful states. 

1 196. What was the probable desire of Napoleon in proposing peace ? 
To develop the resources of Prance and promote public 

tranquillity. 

1 1 97. What services did Napoleon render, as first consul, to his 
country ? 

He appointed able and experienced men to places of trust 
and responsibility, restored the credit of the country, released 
priests from confinement, rebuked the fanaticisms of the ultra 
revolutionists, restored the right to dispose of property by will, 
instituted the Bank of Prance on sound financial principles, 



174 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

brought to a close the war of La Yendee, and guaranteed 
liberty to all who did not oppose the government. Nor did he 
seek to restore those old privileges of feudalism which the 
revolution had abolished. 

1 198. What verdict, then, will posterity pass on Napoleon as first 
consul ? 

That he ruled ably, and for tlie good of France. 

1 1 99. What was the result of his being forced into war by England 
and her allies ? 

Another brilliant campaign, marked by the passage over 
the Alps and the victory of Marengo, June 14, 1800, one of 
the most decisive of the battles of Napoleon. 

I2QO. What were the results of this series of victories ? 
The recovery of Italy, the possession of Belgium by 
France, and of the whole left bank of the Rhine. 

1 201. What famous treaty guaranteed to France both peace and 
aggrandizement ? 

That of Amiens, March, 1802, which left Napoleon in the 
proudest position which it has been the destiny of any mortal 
to fill in these our modern times. 

1202. What followed the peace of Amiens ? 

Yast internal improvements for the improvement of France, 
whose limits were now bounded by the Ocean, the Pyrenees, 
the Alps, and the Ehine. 

1203. What were some of these improvements? 

The Simplon across the Alps, a work of great engineering 
skill ; the cultivation of the beet root and tobacco, the improve- 
ment of education, the construction of fortresses, navies, and 
canals. 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, 175 

1204. What did he effect for religion ? 

He made a treaty with the Pope, restored the old religious 
institutions, and reseated the bishops in their dioceses. 

1205. What did he do in the way of legislation ? 

He gave the Code Napoleon, which has been universally 
admired as a monument of enhghtened intellect. 

1206. What would probably have been the destiny of France had 
Napoleon been contented with the office of first consul, given to him for 
life by a vote of the French people of 3,368,000 out of 3,557,ooo ? 

France probably would have remained to this day the most 
powerful nation in Europe, and would have vindicated her 
revolution. 

1207. What great crime or blunder did Napoleon commit as first 
consul ? 

The assassination of the Duke d'Enghien, March, 1804— 
the only member of the Bourbon family he feared. 

1208. What was the result of this murder? 

It aroused the jealousy and hatrec' of the European 
monarchs and led to another coalition aga^ ^t France. 

• 1209. In the mean time, what other folly did ipoleon commit, which 
intensified the fears of Europe, and revealed his .n .rdinate ambition ? 

He caused himself to be crowned Emperor of the French, 
18th of May, 1801, in great pomp at Notre Dame, by the Pope 
himself. 

1 210. What was one of his first acts as emperor? 
The creation of eighteen marshals of France, all famous 
generals. 



1^6 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

121 1. What daring scheme did he meditate, after a new coalition had 
been formed against him ? 

The invasion of England with an army of 114,000 men, 
splendidly equipped. 

1 21 2. What foiled this enterprise? 

The vigilance of the British navy, then composed of more 
than 120 ships of the line, besides other ships. 

1213. Frustrated in this attempt, what plan did Napoleon conceive? 
The campaign on the banks of the Danube, against the 

Austrians. 

1 214. What great victory did Napoleon win ? 

The battle of Austerlitz, December 2, 1805, against the 
Archduke Charles, the most brilliant of all his victories. 

1 21 5. What were the results of this famous battle ? 

The humiliation of Austria, and great discouragement to 
England, which so affected Pitt that lie died prematurely, at 
the age of forty-seven. 

1216. What victory, gained October 21, 1805, was an offset to the 
battle of Austerlitz ? 

The naval ba e of Trafalgar, won by Lord Nelson over 
the French and >anish, the most brilliant naval battle of 
modern times. 

1217. What happened to the victor? 

He was killed, but obtained a nation's gratitude; and his 
brother, who inherited his title, was created an earl, with £6,000 
a year and an estate worth £100,000. 

1 218. What great victory followed the battle of Austerlitz ? 

That of Jena, gained over the Prussians, 14th of October, 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 1 77 

1806, which led to the occupancy of Berlin, and the humilia- 
tion of Prussia, and the levying of enormous contributions for 
the expenses of the war. 

1 2 19. What other great battle was fought by Napoleon ? 

That of Eylau, Sth of February, 1807, against the Eussians, 
in which 50,000 were slain. 

1220. What followed these great victories over the Austrians, the 
Prussians, and the Russians ? 

The peace of Tilsit, July 8, 1807, made in person between 
Napoleon, the Emperor of Russia, and the King of Prussia, on 
the river Niemen. 

1 22 1. What was the position of Napoleon after the peace of Tilsit ? 
The proudest that mortal man ever filled. He w^as the 

arbiter of Europe, regarded now as invincible. He returned 
to Paris to reign in all the pomp of ancient kings, with all 
Europe at his feet, in fear or admiration. 

1222. What was the effect of all these glories on the mind of Napo- 
leon ? 

He w^as dazzled by his position, powder, and the universal 
homage paid to him. His brain reeled. He seated his brothers 
on the old thrones of Europe. He assumed a tone and manner 
of unbearable arrogance and insolence. He insulted in turn 
the other monarchs of Europe. He looked upon himself as 
irresistible. He concentrated in Paris the spoils of conquered 
countries. 

1223. What passion now seemed to guide his life ? 

A desire to build up a universal empire. The ruling prin- 
ciple of his life seems to have been egotism, not patriotism ; 
not the nation's welfare, but his own glory and aggrandize- 
ment. 



178 POINTS OF HISTORY. 



^ 



1224. In the midst of this glory and intoxication, what great mistal<e 
did he commit ? 

The seizure of Spain, of which he made his brother Joseph 
king, followed by the memorable war of the Peninsula, in 
which his generals were held at bay by Sir Arthur Wellesley, 
afterwards the Duke of Wellington, although they commanded 
300,000 veterans. 

1225. Who were these generals ? 

Marshals Soult, Marmont, Bessieres, Macdonald, Suchet, 
and Eegnier. 

1226. What second blunder did the proud conqueror commit ? 

He divorced Josephine, the author of his fortunes, crowned 
with him at Notre Dame, a woman whom he loved, in order to 
marry the daughter of the emperor of Austria, Maria Louisa. 

1227. What were the alleged motives of Napoleon for this wrong and 
wickedness ? 

To have an heir for his dominions. 

1228. What were the moral effects of this insult ? 

It alienated the hearts of his own subjects, and demon- 
strated to Europe his inextinguishable ambition. 

1229. What third and greater blunder did Napoleon make ? 

He invaded Russia, 1812 — while 300,000 men were fighting 
for his interests in Spain — with a force of 500,000 men, though 
only 200,000 were French. 

1230. Where did the hostile forces first encounter each other? 
Smolensk, 16th of July, 1812, but not until many had 

already perished from sickness and toil. 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 1 79 

1231. What was the most bloody battle of that campaign ? 

The battle of Borodino, which enabled Napoleon to march 
to Moscow, which he entered September 14th. 

1232. What strange resolution animated the Russians ? 

To burn their capital, which compelled Napoleon to 
retreat. 

1233. What about the retreat ? 

It was one of the saddest tragedies in history. It was a 
route, amid cold, fatigue, and slaughter. Not more than 
20,000 men out of 500,000 recrossed the Niemen. 

1234. What was the result of this tremendous catastrophe ? 

It prepared the way for Napoleon's ruin. His old enemies 
renewed the fight against him, and he was compelled to act on 
the defensive. 

1235. What great battle turned the fortune of war against Napoleon ? 
The battle of Leipsic, 15th of October, 1813, when 230,000 

were arrayed against 160,000, which released Germany from 
thraldom, and compelled Napoleon to retreat to France and 
prepare himself against a renewed coalition of the European 
powers. 

1236. What then took place ? 

The invasion of France by the combined armies of Russia, 
Prussia, and Austria in overwhelming numbers, which occu- 
pied Paris. 

1237. What was Napoleon forced to do ? 

To abdicate, which he did at Fontainebleau, April, 1814, 
and the Bourbon monarchy was restored. 

1238. How did the allies prosecute their victory? 

With great moderation. Napoleon was allowed to retire to 



l80 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

Elba, on a stipend of 2,500,000 francs, and witli 400 soldiers 
as a body guard. Paris was not rifled by the conquerors, nor 
was a military contribution imposed upon the people. 

1239. When did the memorable peace of Paris take place ? 
May 30, 1814. 

1240. What event astonished Europe after the abdication of Napo- 
leon ? 

His escape from Elba, 26th of February, 1815, the defection 
of the army from Louis XYI 11. , and the restoration of his 
throne ? 

1 241. What was the result? 

Renewed military preparations on the part of England, 
Prussia, and Austria, on a gigantic scale, and declaration of 
hostilities. 

1242. Where did the contending forces meet for a last decisive con- 
flict ? 

At Waterloo, 18th of June, 1815, where Napoleon was 
hopelessly beaten by the Duke of Wellington, and the Allies. 

1243. What followed the memorable defeat at Waterloo — one of the 
great decisive battles of the world ? 

The occupancy of Paris by the Allies, the restoration of 
the Bourbons, the confinement of Napoleon at St. Helena, the 
restoration of the works of art which Napoleon had seized, to 
their respective owners, and the re-establishment of the old 
limits of Austria, Prussia, Kussia, Spain, Holland, and Italy. 

1244. What was the upshot of the long wars to unseat Napoleon and 
restore the Bourbons ? 

An immense loss of life, and the growth of enormous na- 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. l8l 

tional debts, vast increase of taxes, and general demoralization, 
from wliicli Europe did not rally for more than a generation. 

1245. What are the speculations of history, if Napoleon had not been 
opposed ? 

That he would have established a gigantic military empire, 
and kept the world in subjection. 

1246. What was ultimately gained by Europe? 
The independence of the great nationalities. 

1247. What was the Holy Alliance ? 

A league formed between Kussia, Austria, and Prussia to 
regulate affairs of state on the principles of the Gospel. It 
really meant a determination to suppress liberal principles and 
restore the old order of things. 

1248. What is the great moral taught by the career of Napoleon ? 
The folly of military glory and the dear-earned trophies 

of the battle field. 

1249. How many men are supposed to have perished in the war 
which followed the revolution, among the French alone } 

Between four and five millions. 

1250. What is the lesson which Europe learned ? 

That Providence protects nations and the cause of civiliza- 
tion in spite of the wrath of man. 

References -Alison's History of the French Revolution, Carlyle's History, Thiers' 
Hi-tory Lamartine's History of the Girondists, Mignet and Lacretellc's Histories of France, 
Carlvle's Essays on Mirabeau and Dantou, Burke's Reflections, Scott's Life of Napoleon, 
Napier's History of the Peninsular War, Gilford's Life of Pitt, Southey's Peninsular War, 
La Baume's Russian Campaign, Wellington's Despatches, James' Naval History. 



CHAPTEK XIY. 

English History in the Nineteenth Century until the 
Accession of Queen Yictoria. 

1 25 1. Who was prime minister of England at the commencement of 
the present century ? 

William Pitt, in tlie fortieth year of the reign of George 
III. 

1252. What was the most important event in the domestic history of 
England at the commencement of the century ? 

The "anion of Great Britain and Ireland, January 1, 1801, 
by bribery of the Irish Parliament. 

1253. What other political movement took place this year? 
The attack on Copenhagen by Lord Nelson. 

1254. What was the commencement of the Duke of Wellington's 
career ? 

His military operations in India, 1803, as Sir Arthur Wel- 
lesley — the year that Delhi was taken. 

1255. What marked the year 1804? 

The insanity of the king, and the rise of Canning and Hus- 
kisson in political influence, the year that Napoleon assumed 
the title of Emperor. 

1256. What marked the year 1805 ? 

The return of Sir Arthur Wellesley from India, and the 



^ 



ENGLISH HISTORY— NINETEENTH CENTURY. 1 83 

battle of Trafalgar, in which Kelson was killed, in the midst of 
victory. 

1257. What was the result of this great victory ? 

It destroyed the hopes of Napoleon as to a successful in- 
vasion of England, and made England mistress of the seas. 

1258. What marked the year 1806.? 

The death of Pitt, and the fourth coalition against N'apo- 
leon, the year that the battle of Jena was fought, and the Cape 
of Good Hope was surrendered to the English. 

1259. Who succeeded Pitt as prime minister? 

Lord Grenville, assisted by Fox, Lord Henry Petty (the 
Marquis of Lansdowne) and Erskine as Lord Chancellor. 

1260. What great act signalized their administration ? 

The abolition of the slave trade, 1807, chiefly through the 
efforts of Wilberforce and other philanthropists. 

1261. How long did this administration last? 

Only two years, when the Duke of Portland became pre 
mier, assisted by Spencer Perceval, Lord Eldon, Canning, Castle- 
reagh, and Sir Arthur Wellesley — the year that the peace of 
Tilsit was signed. 

1262. What marked the political history of 1807 ? 

The evacuation of Egypt by the English, the conquest of 
the Danish West India Islands, the bombardment of Copen- 
hagen, when Canning was virtually the ruler of England. 

1263. What marked the year 1808? 

The commencement of the Peninsular war, when Sir Arthur 
Wellesley was sent to Portugal, and when Joseph Bonaparte 
was seated on the throne of Spain. 



1 84 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1264. Who succeeded the Duke of Portland as prime minister in 
1809? 

Mr. Perceval, assisted by Lord Palmerston as war secretary, 
and Sir Robert Peel as under secretary for Ireland. 

1265. When was fought the battle of Corunna ? 
In 1809, when Sir John Moore was killed. 

1266. What marked the year 1810? 

General discontents, caused by the continuance of the war 
against Napoleon, and the distress produced by his continental 
system. • 

1267. What was this system ? ' 

The exclusion of British manufactures from all the coun- 
tries which he controlled. 

1268. What marked the year 1811 ? 

The regency of the Prince of Wales, at the height of 
public distress, and the plenitude of the j3ower of Napoleon. 

1269. How long did Perceval hold the reins of state ? 
Only three years, being assassinated in 1812. 

1270. Who succeeded him as prime minister? 

The Earl of Liverpool, with Lord Castlereagh as foreign 
secretary. 

1 271. What events marked the first year of his administration ? 
The victories of Lord Wellington in Spain, the war with 

the United States, and the invasion of Pussia by Napoleon. 

1272. What were the principal victories of Wellington in Spain ? 
The battle of Talavera, which made him viscount ; that of 



4 



ENGLISH HISTORY— NINETEENTH CENTURY. 1 85 

Badajos, which made him earl ; that of Salamanca, which gave 
him Madrid, and that of Pampeluna, gained over Son It, in 
1813, which resulted in the expulsion of the French from 
Spain, and for which he was made duke, with an annuity of 
£13,000 and £300,000 to purchase an estate. 

1273. What marked the year 1814 ? 

Peace with the United States, the Congress of Yienna, and 
the exile of IS'apoleon to Elba. 

1274. What was settled at the Congress of Vienna? 

The restoration of the Bourbons, and of the conquests of 
I^apoleon to the different European powers. 

1275. What marked the year 1815? 

The final defeat of E^apoleon, at Waterloo, by the Duke of 
Wellington, and Blucher, and the second treaty of Paris. 

1276. What was the effect of the Napoleonic wars on England ? 

An increase of political prestige, and a remarkable develop- 
ment of national resources under the stimulus which the war 
gave to manufactures and commerce. 

1277. What was the amount of the national debt at the close of the 
war? 

About £800,000,000, which entailed an enormous taxation. 

1278. What important mission was undertaken in 1816? 
The embassy of Lord Amherst to China. 

1279. What political agitator gained great prominence at the close of 
the war ? 

William Cobbett, whose political Register had a circula- 
tion of 50,000 copies. 



1 86 POINTS OF HISTORY. 



\ 



1280. What other agitators gained prominence at this time ? 
Henry Hurst and Sir Francis Burdett, who songht to 

obtain parliamentary reform. ^B 

1281. What marked the political state of England after the war ? 4 
Popular agitations, from the distress of the working classes. 

1282. What domestic event produced general grief in 1817 ? 

The death of the Princess Charlotte, daughter of the 
regent. 

1283. When did the prince regent ascend the throne ? 

In the year 1820, as George lY., having been regent nine 
years. 

1284. What was the most important event after his accession ? 
The trial of Queen Caroline, which brought into notice 

Henry Brougham, who defended her, against Sir James Copley, 
solicitor-general (Lord Lyndhurst). 

1285. What course did Parliament pursue in her acquittal? 

It settled an annuity on her of £50,000 ; but, broken by 
humiliation and persecution, especially when refused by the 
king to be present on his coronation, she soon after died. 

1286. What noted statesman committed suicide in 1822 ? 

The Marquis of Londonderry (Lord Castlereagh), foreign 
secretary. 

1287. Who succeeded him as foreign secretary ? 

Mr. Canning, who was now the most prominent of English 
statesmen. 

1288. Who were most prominent next to him ? 

Mr. Huskisson, president of the board of trade. Lord Lynd- 
nurst. Sir Bobert Peel, and Lord Palmerston. 



ENGLISH HISTORY— NINETEENTH CENTURY. 18/ 

1289. What event on the continent excited great interest at this time ? 
The Greek revolution, in which Lord Byron enlisted. 

1290. What other revolutions were taking place about this time ? 
Those of the South American States, whose independence 

was recognized by Great Britain. 

1 291. What war took place in India in 1824 ? 

The Burmese war, conducted by Lord Combermere and 
General Campbell. 

1292. What famous architectural works were undertaken this year ? 
The rebuilding of London Bridge, and a tunnel under the 

Thames. 

1293. What marked the year 1826.? 

Riots and agitations from the distress of the laboring classes. 

1294. When did the Liverpool ministry end ? 

In 1827, on the death of the Earl of Liverpool, after a long 
premiership. 

1295. Who succeeded him ? 

Mr. Canning, assisted by Mr. Huskisson, Lord Palmerston, 
and Lord Lyndhurst — an administration of Tories with liberal 
principles. 

1296. How long did Canning remain prime minister? 

Only a few months. He died from overwork, and was 
succeeded by Lord Goderich, and he again soon after by the 
Duke of Wellington. 

1297. What eminent statesman became prominent in this adminis- 
tration ? 

Sir Robert Peel, as home secretary, and Lord Aberdeen as 
foreign secretary. 



1 88 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1298. Who were prominent in opposition? 
Lord John Russell and Henry Brougham. 

1299. What important bills were passed by Parliament during the 
administration of the Duke of Wellington ? 

The repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts, and the 
Catholic Relief Bill, which made Catholics eligible to both 
houses of Parliament without religious tests. 

1300. What celebrated Irish lawyer became famous at this time ? 
Daniel O'Connell, who had great influence with the Irish 

members of parliament. 

1 301. What important bill was passed which gave relief to debtors, 
1829? 

That which abolished arrest for debt, when the cause of 
action was less than £20. 

1302. What marked the year 1830 ? 

The death of George lY., at the age of sixty-seven, after a 
virtual reign of nineteen years. 

1303. What marked the history of England during his reign ? 

A great increase in wealth and liberal sentiments, and great 
distress and agitation among the working classes. 

1304. What educational movements took place ? 

The opening of the London University, the establishment 
of the Society for the Diffusion of Knowledge, the creation of 
mechanics' and literary institutions, and the foundation of the 
Royal Society for the encouragement of literature. 

1305. Who succeeded George IV.? 

William lY., duke of Clarence, brother of the king. 



ENGLISH HISTORY— NINETEENTH CENTURY. 189 

1306. What eminent man died shortly after his accession ? 

Mr. Huskisson, who was killed at the opening of the Liver- 
pool and Manchester Railway, September 15, 1830. 

1307. What happened soon after ? 

The resignation of the Wellington ministry, succeeded by 
that of Lord Grey, and the return of the Whigs to power. 

1308. What was the first great measure of the Whig government ? 
A reform of the representative system, which had been agi- 
tated for fifteen years. 

1309. When was the Reform Bill introduced into the House of Com- 
mons ? 

In March, 1831, by Lord John Russell, and carried in Sep- 
tember by a vote of 345 against 236, but it was rejected by the 
House of Lords. 

1 310. What was the result of the rejection of this bill by the Lords ? 
Great popular agitation and riots. 

131 1. When did this important bill finally become a law } 

In 1832, carried by the ministers only by tlieir determina- 
tion to advise the king to create new peers sufficient to pass 
the bill. 

1 31 2. Why was the Reform Bill so important a measure ? 
Because it was a great revolution, effected by constitutional 

means. It changed the system of representation and increased 
the franchise, giving its privileges to the people in towns who 
paid a rental of £10, and in counties to those who paid a 
rental of £40. By this bill many large towns were repre- 
sented in parliament, and many small boroughs were disfran- 
chised. 



IQO POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1 31 3. What further results marked the Reform Bill ? 
It introduced successive reforms, for the benefit of the peo- 
ple, instead of legislation for favored classes. 

1 314. What was the most important of these ? 

The abolition of slavery in the West India Islands, giving 
a compensation to slaveholders of £20,000,000. 

1 31 5. What other measure was adopted by the reformed parliament ? 
The new poor law, which improved the condition of the 

laboring classes. 

J 3 16. What third great reform bill passed parliament? 
That of the Irish Church, which reduced the number of 
bishops. 

1 31 7. What other beneficent act was passed of great importance in 
1833? 

That which prohibited the employment of children in mills 
under nine years of age. 

1 31 8. What great calamity afflicted England at this time ? 

The Asiatic cholera, which had ravaged Europe, and which 
first appeared in England, in 1831. 

1319. When was the Whig ministry overthrown? 

In 1834, succeeded by that of the Tories under the Duke 
of Wellington and Sir Robert Peel, which held power but a 
few months. 

1320. Who succeeded the Duke of Wellington as premier ? 

Lord Melbourne, assisted by the old Whig chieftains, with 
the exception of Lord Brougham, whose eccentricities de- 
stroyed confidence. 



1 



ENGLISH HISTORY-NINETEENTH CENTURY. IQI 

1321 What important measures were passed by this administration ? 

The municipal reform, wliicli made municipal government 
a reality : the dissolution of the Orange lodges in Ireland, which 
perpetuated religious bigotry ; and the reduction of the tax on 
newspapers from fourpence to one penny. 

1322. How long did the reign of William IV. continue ? 

Till June, 1837, when he was succeeded by Queen Victoria, 
after a reign of seven years. 

1323. What great internal improvements took place in this reign ? 
The construction of railways in all parts of the kingdom. 

1324. What important scientific discoveries were made the early part 
of the nineteenth century ? . . ^ oa^ u 

The decomposition of alkalies by galvamsm m 1806 ; the 
discovery of the safety lamp in 1816 ; the introduction of gas 
into houses; the construction of the telegraph, and the appli- 
cation of steam to machinery. 

1325. What important philanthropic enterprise took place the early 
part of the century ? 

The establishment of missions among heathen nations the 
introduction of Sunday schools, and the growth of Bible 
societies. 

1326. What was the great wonder of the age ? 

The introduction of steam for railways and navigation. 

1327. What eminent scientific men flourished in the reigns of George 
IV. and William IV. ? 

Davy, Wollaston, Dalton, Babbage, Faraday, Arnott, Brews- 
ter, Herschel, and Buckland were among the most distin- 
guished. 



192 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1328. What additions were made to the science of political economy? 
The writings of Mill, Malthus, Eicardo, and McCulloch are 

the most noted. 

1329. Who were the most eminent poets ? 

Byron, Sir Walter Scott, Landor, Wordsworth, Sonthey, 
Coleridge, Moore, Kogers, Hogg, Montgomery and Campbell. 

1330. What great essayists entered the field of criticism ? 
Jeffrey, Brougham, Mackintosh, Hazlitt, Lamb, Hunt, 

Wilson, Lockhart, Macauley, and Carlyle. 

1 33 1. What forms of literature declined in this reign? 
Eloquence and the Drama. 

1332. What great novelist arose in the early part of the century ? 

Sir Walter Scott, whose works effected a revolution in novel 
writing. 

1333- What was the first steamer to cross the Atlantic ? 
The Savannah, in 1819, the same year that the Menai 
Bridge was constructed. 

References.— Annual Register, Croly's Life of George IV., Stapleton's Life of Can- 
ning, Lives of Brougham, Perceval, Wellington, Sir Robert Peel, and O'Connell, Alison's 
History of Europe. 



\ 



CHAPTER XV. 

European Continental History in the Nineteenth Century 
FROM THE Fall of Napoleon to the Second Empire. 

1334. What was the condition of France on the restoration of the 
Bourbons ? 

That of great exhaustion aud demoralization. 

1335. What was the Holy Alliance ? 

A league formed between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, in 
1815, to regulate their future conduct by the principles of the 
Gospel. 

1336. What did this mean ? 

To rule on the principles of absolutism, and abrogate all 
constitutional checks. 

1337. How did Louis XVHI. seek to reign ? 

By despotic measures, forced upon him by the ultra royalist 
party. 

1338. What was the effect of these measures ? 

To produce a spirit of discontent and agitation. 

1339. What was the most signal event on the restored monarchy of 
the Bourbons ? 

The assassination of the Due de Berri, heir to the throne, by 
a Bonapartist fanatic, 1820. 



194 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1340. How long did Louis XVIII. reign ? 

Only eight years, when he was succeeded by his brother 
Charles X., 1823, a man sixty-six years of age. 

1341. What important measure signalized his accession to power? 
The restoration to the nobility of the estates which had 

been forfeited by the revolution. 

1342. What mistake did the king commit ? 

He encouraged the old tyranny of the priests, and was 
ruled by their intrigues. 

1 343. What utterly destroyed his popularity ? 

He abrogated the liberties he had promised to defend. 
13/14. Who was the minister who encouraged his arbitrary rule? 
Prince Polignac. 

1345. What was the result of these arbitrary measures? 

General hostility and a popular outbreak, which forced his 
abdication, in 1830. 

1346. To whom was the vacant throne given ? 

To the Duke of Orleans, son of him who was beheaded in 
1793, the head of the younger branch of the Bourbons. 

1347. To whom did he owe his elevation ? 

To the prosperous middle classes, who wished for peace 
and national prosperity. 

1348. Who was especially instrumental in his elevation ? 
The Marquis de la Fayette and M. Odillon Barrot. 

1349. What was the effect of the revolution which placed Louis 
Philippe on the throne, as " Citizen King " ? 

It was followed by revolution in other countries, and the 
revival of constitutional governments. 



EUROPEAN HI ^TuHY— NINETEENTH CENTURY. IQS 

1350. What happened in Belgium? 

It was separated from Holland, and was ruled by Prince 
Leopold, as a constitutional king. 

1 35 1. What happened in Italy after the accession of the Bourbons 
in 181 5? 

A succession of insurrections, finally suppressed by Austria. 

1352. What happened in Spain on the return of Ferdinand to his 
Bourbon throne ? 

Discontent and tumults, whicli compelled the king to give 
a constitution. 

1353. How long did he reign constitutionally ? 

Not long. Assisted by France he suppressed the liberal 
movements, and the patriots fled to England. 

1354. What political revolution took place in South America after the 
fall of Napoleon ? 

Tliat in Venezuela in 1815, in Paraguay in 1817, in Chili 
in 1818, Peru and Guatemala in 1821, and Mexico in 1824, 
which released their states from the government of Spain. 

1355. What happened to these republics ? 

They retained their independence, but fell into anarchies. 

1356. What occurred in Brazil in 1822? 

It separated from Portugal, and accepted Dom Pedro as 
emperor. 

1357. Who was the leading spirit in securing the independence of the 
South American states ? 

Simon Bolivar, chosen president, for life, of the Republic 
of Peru. He died, 1831, universally respected as a disinter- 
ested patriot. 



\g6 POIXTS OF HISTORY. 

1358. Who was the leading statesman in Europe after the Congress 
of Vienna ? 

Prince Metternich, who governed Austria, and cmslied lib- 
erty wherever it appeared. 

1359. What signal revolt took place in Turkey in 1S20? 

That of Ali Pacha, in Albania, who nrged the Greeks to 
secure their independence. 

1360. What fortune attended the Greeks in their rebellion against the 
Turks ? 

Thev snfiered great defeats at first from Ibrahim Pacha, 
son of Mehemet Ali. bnt through the influence of Great Bri- 
tain, France, and Eussia thev secured their independence. 

1 36 1. What was the decisive battle of the war? 

The naval battle of Xavarino, when the naval power of the 
Turks was crushed. 

1362. What put an end to the war? 
The fall of Missolonghi, in 1S29. 

1363. Who was made president of the Greek Republic? 
Capo d'lstrias. 

1364. What important event happened in Turkey at this period, under 
the Sultan Mahmud ? 

The massacre and suppression of tlie Janizaries. 1S26 — 
for several hundred years the most efficient of the Turkish 
soldiers. 

1365. \\Tiat other war was going on against Turkey at this time ? 
A war bv Russia, 



EUROPEAN HISTORY— NINETEENTH CENTURY. 1 9/ 

1366. With what success ? 

The Russians, after a series of victories, crossed the Balkan 
Mountains, and advanced to Adrianople, 1829. 

1367. What did the treaty of Adrianople secure to Greece ? 

The acknowledgment of her independence by Turkey, 
after a desperate and cruel war of nearly seven years, in which 
Turkey put forth all her power to regain her ascendency. 

\ 

1368. Under whose sway was Russia involved in war with Turkey? 

That of the Emperor Nicholas, who ascended the throne in 
1825, on the death of his brother Alexander. 

1369. What first engaged his attention ? 

An insurrection in Poland, in 1830, which the emperor 
ruthlessly crushed. 

1370. What closed the political career of Poland as an independent 
state ? 

The annexation of the Republic of Cracow to Austria, in 
1846. 

1 371. What dreadful calamity made its appearance in Europe in 1830 ? 
The Asiatic cholera, which broke out first in Moscow. 

1372. Who greatly distinguished himself in Poland, in the attempt to 
restore independence ? 

Prince Adam Czartoryski, who was crushed by Russia, in 
1831. 

1373. What afterwards occupied the attention of the Emperor 
Nicholas ? 

His wars against the Turks. 



198 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1374. What marked the history of Prussia after the fall of Napoleon ? 
The suppression of liberty and great discontents. 

1375. What may be said of the Continent of Europe generally after 
the fall of Napoleon to the accession of Louis Philippe ? 

There was a reaction of liberal sentiments, and a general de- 
termination by all the monarchs to suppress revolutionary ideas. 

1376. What powerful ecclesiastical body regained ascendency during 
these fifteen years ? 

The Jesuits, who had a great influence in all the European 
courts, and in all matters pertaining to education. They 
formed an alliance with absolute monarchs. 

1377. What great discovery was made in Egypt in 1821 ? 

The interpretation of the hieroglyphics by Champollion. 

1378. What other scientific triumphs were achieved at this period } 
Malte Brun founded the Geographical Society of Paris, and 

Dr. Gall made himself famous by liis phrenological specula- 
tions. 

1379. Who were the most illustrious literary and scientific men who 
flourished in France at this time } 

Volney, the infidel philosopher; Beranger, the poet; De 
Lambre and La Place, the mathematicians ; Arago, the astrono- 
mer ; Constant, the philosopher ; Sismondi, the historian ; Say, 
the political economist ; Saint Simon, the socialist ; Guizot, the 
historian ; and Cuvier, the anatomist. 

1380. Who were their great contemporaries in Germany? 
Kichter and Goethe, poets ; Humboldt, the geographer ; 

Hegel, the philosopher ; Schlegel, the critic ; and ]^iebuhr, 
the historian. 



EUROPEAN HISTORY— NINETEENTH CENTURY. 1 99 

1381. What marked the condition of France on the elevation of Louis 
PhiHppe ? 

A return of commercial and manufacturing prosperity, and 
a general desire for peace. 

1382. What great statesmen were his ministers at different times? 
Lafitte, who ruled for a year, succeeded by Casimir Perier, 

who died of cholera in 1831, and he again by Marshal Soult, 
assisted by De Broglie, Guizot, and Thiers. 

1383. What important works early occupied the attention of the gov- 
ernment ? 

The fortification of Paris by a series of forts. 

1384. What political event of importance first occurred ? 
War with Algiers to suppress piracy. 

1385. What incident first drew attention to Prince Louis Napoleon ? 
His attempted insurrection at Strasburg. 

1386. What happened to the king in 1835 ? 

His attempted assassination by Fieschi with an infernal 
machine, by which twenty-five persons were killed or wounded. 

1387. What was the effect of this outrage ? 

More rigorous measures on the part of government in refer- 
ence to political offenses. 

1388. What great measure did Guizot inaugurate as prime minister? 
A system of educational instruction which endowed 35,000 

schools. 

1389. What grew out of the suppression of piracy by the Algerines ? 
A great war in Africa, against Abd-el-Ivader, ])y whieli a 

large province was added to the colonial possessions of France. 



200 POINTS OF HISTORY., 

1390. What distinguished French generals were brought to notice 
by this war ? 

Lamoriciere, Caurobert, St. Arnaud, and Cavaignac espe- 
cially. 

1 391. To what was Louis Philippe forced by public sentiment in 
France in 1840 ? 

To restore the bones of Kapoleon, and to build over his 
remains, under the dome of the Invalides, a splendid mau- 
soleum. 

1392. What marked the peaceful government of Louis Philippe? 

Its enormous expense, to support an army of 640,000 men 
and carry out public improvements. 

1393. What was the consequence ? 

A large deficit in the revenue and oppressive taxation, 
which led to discontents and clamor for reform. 

1394. Who was prime minister amid these discontents } 

M. Guizot, who made no effort to conciliate the people. 

1395. Who opposed the government? 

Arago, Odillon Barrot, Louis Blanc, Thiers, and Lamartine. 

1396. What gre it blunder did the king make in his waning popu- 
larity ? 

He married his fourth son, the Duke of Montpensier, to a 
Spanish princess, against his pledge to the English govern- 
ment, with the view of the future accession of his son to the 
throne of Spain. 

1397. What completed the unpopularity of the king? 

His excessive avarice, with an annual deficit in the national 
revenues of 300,000,000 francs. 



EUROPEAN HISTORY— NINETEENTH CENTURY. 201 

1398. And what was the result ? 
Popular agitations for political reform. 

1399. In what did these agitations end ? 

The abdication of Louis Philippe, and a provisional gov- 
ernment under Lamartine ; insurrections and barricades, in 
which the Archbishop of Paris was slain. 

1400. Who ended the tumults and restored law ? 

General Cavaignac, who had distinguished himself in the 
wars of Africa. 

1401. Who became president of the French Republic on the inaugu- 
ration of a republican government } 

Louis ]^apoleon, who, having been elected to a seat in the 
assembly, was chosen by universal suffrage, October 7, 1848. 

1402. What events took place in Spain during the reign of Louis 
Philippe ? 

The Carlist war, which was a civil war relative to the suc- 
cession to the throne, claimed by Queen Isabella, daughter of 
Ferdinand, who died 1833, and Don Carlos, Ms younger brother. 

1403. What distinguished patriot did the Carlist war develop ? 
Espartero, who belonged to the party of movement, and who 

on the abdication of the queen regent, Christina, in 1840, be- 
came regent in her place, in behalf of Isabella. 

1404. What became of Don Carlos ? 

He was ultimately defeated and driven from Spain, 1839. 

1405. How long did Espartero hold power as regent ? 

Only about three years, when, by force of factions, he 
retired to England, and General Narvaez was made lieutenant- 



202 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

general, under Queen Isabella, who, at thirteen, was declared 
of age by the Cortez, and the queen mother, Christina, returned 
to Madrid, 1844. 

1406. What complicated the troubles of Spain ? 

The marriage of the sister of the young Queen Isabella, 
1846, heir presumptive, to the Duke of Montpensier, son of 
Louis Philippe. 

1407. What events of interest took place in Turkey during the reign 
of Louis Philippe ? 

The rebellion of Mehemet Ali, pacha of Egypt, in 1831, 
and his hereditary sovereignty of Egypt, guaranteed by the 
Sultan, after a desolating war, on condition of an annual 
tribute. 

1408. What general distinguished himself in behalf of Mehemet Ali? 
His son Ibrahim Pacha, who overran Syria, and would 

have occupied Constantinople but for the intervention of 
Russia. 

1409. What took place in Hanover, 1831 ? 

The ratification of a constitutional government. 

1410. When was a monarchy established in Greece? 

In 1832, by the election of Otho, son of the King of Ba- 
varia. 

141 1. When was the first attempt at a parliament in Prussia made ? 
In 1842, by the new king, Frederic William lY., who suc- 
ceeded to the throne in 1840. 

141 2. What was the effect of the revolution which led to the institu- 
tion of the second French Republic on the rest of Europe ? 

In Austria, Prince Metternich, who long controlled Euro- 



EUROPEAN HISTORY— NINETEENTH CENTURY. 203 

pean politics, was compelled to flee for his life ; in Bavaria, 
the king abdicated ; in Prussia, Frederic William I Y. yielded 
all that was demanded ; in Italy, freedom was proclaimed from 
the Alps to the Adriatic, and Sardinia, Tuscany, Modena, and 
Parma obtained the promise of constitutions; in Germany a 
parliament met in Frankfort, consisting of deputies from all 
parts, to deliberate on reform. . 

1 41 3. When did a reaction take place ? 

In less than a year, when the monarchs, who had been com- 
pelled to grant constitutions, violated their promises. 

1414. What happened at Rome ? 

The pope fled, was deposed of his temporal sovereignty, and 
a republic was established under Mazzini. 

141 5. What course did Louis Napoleon pursue in reference to Rome ? 
He sent an army to Italy, took Kome, deposed the repub- 
lican leaders, and re-established the pope. 

1416. What insurrection took place in Hungary? 
That under Kossuth, Bem, and Batthyanyi. 

References.— Alison's History of Europe, Barante's Life of Louis XVIII., Blaqniere'a 
Greek Revolution, History of Charles X., Hordynski's Polish Revolution, Montgalliard's 
France from 1792 to 1825, Annual Register, Life of Louis Philippe. 



CHAPTER XYI. 
England During the Reign of Queen Yictoria. 

1417. In what year did Victoria ascend the throne ? 

In 1837, when she was eighteen years of age, and when 
Lord Melbourne was prime minister. 

141 8. Who were the most prominent of the party leaders ? 

Lord John Russell, Lord Morpeth, Lord Palmerston, 
among the Whigs, or Liberals as they were henceforth called, 
and Sir Robert Peel, Lord Lyndhurst, Lord Stanley, among 
the Tories, or Conservatives. 

141 9. What prominent men were members of Parliament ? 
O'Connell, the Irish agitator; Mr. Grote, the historian ; Mr. 

Shiel, the Irish orator ; Mr. Bulwer, Joseph Hume, Mr. Duns- 
combe, the radical ; Mr. Gladstone, and Mr. Disraeli, who had 
just entered parliament. 

1420. What political event of importance first marked the reign of 
Queen Victoria ? 

The rebellion in Canada, 1838, headed by Papineau and 
Dr. Mackenzie, caused by the rivalries and jealousies of the 
French and English colonists. 

1421. Who was sent to Canada to heal the disturbances ? 

Lord Durham, an able but arbitrary man, who inaugurated 
internal self-government and a new system of municipal insti- 
tutions, since followed in all the British colonies. 



i 



ENGLAND— QUEEN VICTORIA. 20$ 

1422. What domestic event took place in 1838, of great national 
interest ? 

The coronation of the Queen, with great splendor. 

1423. What was the next domestic event of interest ? 

The marriage of the Queen, February 10, 1840, with 
Prince Albert of Saxe Coburg — a remarkably happy marriage. 

1424. What political event at this time occupied the attention of the 
nation ? 

The Afghan war, which broke out in December, 1838, in 
consequence of the efforts of the British to restore the Shah 
Soojar to the throne of his ancestors. 

1425. What were the results of this war ? 

At first the English were successful, and entered Cabul, 
the capital of Afghanistan, in triumph, and restored the legiti- 
mate prince. 

1426. What disaster followed ? 

An insurrection at Cabul, in 1842, ending in a bloody mas- 
sacre of the English, and their disastrous retreat from Cabul, 
when only one man escaped. 

1427. What resulted from this disaster ? 

General indignation in England and renewed hostilities, 
which resulted in retaking Cabul. 

1428. What happened to the captured state ? 

It was soon abandoned to its customary anarchy and crime. 

1429. Who was governor-general in this unfortunate war? 

Lord Auckland, succeeded by Lord Ellenborough, who with- 
drew the British forces from Afghanistan. 



206 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1430. What internal measure of importance marked the Melbourne 
ministry ? 

The Penny Postage Law, which came into operation in 
1840, through the labors chiefly of Rowland Hill, who pro- 
jected this improvement. 

1 43 1. What marked the year 1841 ? ; 
The birth of the Prince of Wales, and the union of the 

Canadas under Lord Sydenham (Poulett Thompson) as gov- 
ernor, and the resignation of the Melbourne ministry. 

1432. Who succeeded as premier ? 

Sir Eobert Peel, assisted by the Duke of Wellington, Lord 
Stanley, and Sir James Graham. 

1433. What memorable religious movement took place this year ? 
The schisms in the Scotch Church, and the establishment 

of the Free Church, under Dr. Chalmers, Dr. Candlish, and 
other leaders. 

1434. What took place about the same time in the English Church ? 
The condemnation of the Oxford tracts, or the Puseyite 

movement, by the University of Oxford. 

1435. What great popular agitation marked the year 1842? 
The Anti-Corn-Law League, led by Cobden and Bright. 

1436. What important treaty was made this year with the United 
States ? 

The Ashburton Treaty, which regulated the boundaries of 
the United States and the British Colonies. 

1437. What country was annexed to Great Britain in 1843 ? 
Scinde, which had been long tributary to Cabul. 



ENGLAND— QUEEN VICTORIA. 20/ 

1438. What foreign war was closed this year ? 

That with China, which commenced in 1840, in consequence 
of the destruction of a large quantity of opium, owned by Brit- 
ish merchants, by the Chinese commissioner Lin. 

1439. What great act signalized the administration of Sir Robert 
Peel ? 

The repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, after a long agitation 
headed by Bright and Cobden. 

1440. What great disasters contributed to the repeal of the corn 
laws ? 

Irish distress, poor harvests, and the decline of trade. 

1441. What reforms were closely connected with the repeal of the 
corn laws ? 

The establishment of free trade, to which Sir Robert Peel 
was converted by Cobden. 

1442. What war in India took place amid these domestic agitations ? 
The war with the Sikhs, conducted by Sir Henry Hardinge, 

the governor-general, and Lord Gough. 

1443. When was the Punjaub, the theatre of this war, incorporated 
with the British Empire ? 

In 1849, when Lahore was taken. 

1444. What was the effect of the repeal of the corn laws ? 

To break the monopoly of the great landed proprietors, and 
benefit the working classes. 

1445. What was the connection of the repeal of the corn laws with 
national prosperity ? 

By furnishing cheaper bread to tlie laboring classes, the 
manufacturing interests of the country were fnrtlier developed. 



208 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1446. What young statesman came into notice by his bitter attacks 
of Sir Robert Peel ? 

Benjamin Disraeli, who became the leader of the Conserva- 
tives in the House of Commons. 

m 

1447. What great mania marked this period ? * 
The railway constructions, and the expenditure on them of 

£300,000,000, one-third of which never paid dividends. 

1448. What resulted from this mania ? 

The multiplication of joint-stock companies, which in- 
creased gambling speculations and demoralized the mercantile 
character of the country. 

1449. How long did the administration of Sir Robert Peel last ? 
From August, 1841, to July, 1846, when Lord John Russell 

became prime minister. 

1450. What calamity afflicted the kingdom this year? 

The failure of the potato crop, which caused great distress 
In Ireland, and led to a vast emigration to the United States. 

145 1. What important bills were passed during this administration 
of Lord John Russell ? 

The Irish Poor Law, May 31, 1847, and an alteration of the 
Navigation Laws, 1849, were the most important. 

1452. How long did Lord John Russell continue in power? 

Until February, 1852, with a brief intermission, when he 
was succeeded by the Earl of Derby. 

1453. What great industrial display was made during the adminis- 
tration of Lord Russell ? 

The "Great Exhibition," in 1851, the first of the kind, 
under the especial auspices of Prince Albert. 



ENGLAND— QUEEN VICTORIA. 209 

1454. What other events of note took place during his ministry ? 
Eelief to the starving Irish; Chartist demonstration on 

Kennington Common ; trial of Smith O'Brien, in Ireland, for 
sedition, 184:8 ; ecclesiastical disputes about the doctrine of 
baptismal regeneration. 

1455. What important scientific experiment was made at this period? 
The submarine telegraph at Folkestone, followed soon after 

by a submarine telegraph to America. 

1456. What important discoveries were made by Mr. Layard in 
Nineveh ? 

The interpretation of the cuneiform inscriptions on the 
ruins of the city. 

1457. When was gold discovered in Australia? 

In the year 1850, three years after the discovery of gold iu 
California. 

1458. What was the effect of this discovery ? 

The multiplication of the precious metals, and correspond- 
ing rise in the expenses of living. 

1459. What ecclesiastical agitation marked the year 1857 ? 

That which was produced by the appointment, by the Pope, / 
of Dr. Wiseman as Archbishop of Westminster and as Cardi- 
nal, with an English title. 

1460. What was the result ? 

The passage of the Ecclesiastical Titles Bill, forced upon the 
government of Lord John Kussell by the pressure of public 
opinion, which, however, never had much moral eJBfect. 

1461. What very illustrious man died in England in 1852 ? 

The Duke of Wellington, at the age of eiglity-four, after 
having received ail the honors which the nation could bestow. 



2IO POINTS OF HISTORY. 



I 



1462. What public misfortune happened to England about this time ? 
The death of Sir Robert Peel, by a fall from his horse. 

1463. Who succeeded Lord John Russell as premier in 1852 ? 
Lord Derby, with Disraeli for his lieutenant. 

1464. Who became prominent at this time in opposition to Derby and 
Disraeli ? 

Mr. Gladstone, who became the leading orator of the House 
of Commons. 

1465. Who succeeded Lord Derby as premier, after a brief enjoyment 
of power ? 

Lord Aberdeen, with Gladstone as chancellor of the ex- 
chequer, Lord Palmerston as home secretary, Lord John Rus- 
sell as foreign secretary. 

1466. Who was the animating spirit of this administration ? 
Mr. Gladstone, on whom the ey.es of the nation rested. 

1467. What was the great question which agitated this administra- 
tion ? 

The Eastern question, growing out of the aggressions of 
Russia on the Turkish power. 

1468. To what did this question lead ? 

The Crimean war, when France and England took the side 
of Turkey. 

1469. When did this war break out ? 

In 1854, conducted on the part of the French by Marshal 
St. Arnaud, on the part of England by Lord Raglan, with a 
united force of nearly 60,000 men. 

1470. What was the great feat of the war ? 

The siege and capture of Sebastopol, within whose harbor 
the Russian fleet was protected. 



ENGLAND— QUEEN VICTORIA. 211 

1471. What Russian general distinguished himself in the defence of 
this strong fortress ? 

General Todleben, whose admirable defences prolonged the 
contest. 

1472. What was one of the results of this war on England ? 

It led to the elevation of Lord Palmerston, who, alone of 
the ministry of Lord Aberdeen, manifested military genius 
and energy. 

1473. When did Palmerston become prime minister? 
In February, 1855. 

1474. What was the effect of the Russian reverses on the Emperor 
Nicholas ? 

He sickened and died of a broken heart, March 2, 1855. 

1475. What political state in Europe rose to prominence in conse- 
quence of the Crimean war ? 

The kingdom of Sardinia, under Count Cavour. 

1476. When was peace declared with Russia? 

February 26, 1856, established by the Congress of Paris. 

1477. What other benefits resulted from the Congress of Paris, repre- 
senting France, England, Prussia, Austria, Sardinia, and Turkey ? 

The abolition of privateering, and amendments to the law 
of nations, such as that a neutral flag covers enemies' goods, 
with the exception of contraband of war, and that blockades, 
to be binding, must be effective. 

1478. What important event followed soon after the Crimean war, in 
1857? 

A mutiny of the Sepoy troops in India, during which great 
barbarities were inflicted, especially at Cawnporc, and many 



212 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

important cities fell into their hands, including Delhi, the 
ancient capital of the Mogul empire. 

1479. What caused this rebellion ? 

The withdrawal of troops for China, and the changes which 
had been made by the Indian government affecting the social 
habits. 

1480. What generals distinguished themselves by the suppression of 
the mutiny ? 

General Havelock, Sir Colin Campbell, and Sir Hugh Rose, 
the victor at Gwalior. 

1481. What resulted from this mutiny ? 

The transference of the government of India from the 
East India Company to the crown, 1858. 

1482. How long did the administration of Lord Palmerston last ? 
Until 1858, when he resigned, and was succeeded by Lord 

Derby at the head of a conservative ministry. 

1483. What caused the fall of this ministry ? 

The reform bill introduced "into the House of Commons 
by Mr. Disraeli, which was not satisfactory ; the sixth change 
of ministry in fifteen years. 

1484. Who returned to power in 1859? ' 

Lord Palmerston, with Lord John Russell as foreign secre- 
tary, Mr. Gladstone as chancellor of the exchequer, and Lord 
Granville as president of the council. 

1485. What was the first important step of the new government ? 
The conclusion of a commercial treaty with France on prin- 
ciples of free trade, as expounded by Mr. Cobden. 



I 



f 



ENGLAND— QUEEN VICTORIA. 213 

i486. What came near involving Great Britain in a war with 
America ? 

The affair of the Trent — the name of an English ship 
from which the envoys of the Southern States, on the breaking 
out of civil war, had been forcibly abducted by a United States 
ship of war. 

1487. What event filled England with mourning in 1861 ? 

The death of the Prince Consort, who had virtually been 
king of England without anybody suspecting it. 

1488. What effect had the American war of the rebellion on Great 
Britain ? 

It produced a cotton famine, and great distress among the 
manufacturing classes. 

1489. What great mistake did the English government commit during 
the progress of the American war? 

In allowing the ship called the Alabama^ to be fitted out 
from an English dockyard, under the flag of the Confederate 
States to prey upon American commerce, against the protest of 
the American minister. 

1490. What resulted from this outrage on international law ? 

The bitter hostility of the United States against Great 
Britain, from the great injury which happened to American 
commerce. 

1 49 1. What was the ultimate effect of the Alabama outrage ? 

To cripple American commerce, and throw the carrying 
trade between England and America into the hands of the 
English. 

1492. Who succeeded Lord Palmerston, who died in 1865, as premier.? 
Earl Russell, with Mr. Gladstone as chancellor of the ex- 
chequer and leader of the House of Commons. 



214 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1493. What important measure did Mr. Gladstone inaugurate ? 

A new reform bill, which gave the franchise to household- 
ers of the value of £14 in the counties, and £7 in the bor- 
oughs, a compromise which pleased no party. 

1494. What was the result ? 

The ministry was compelled to resign, and they were suc- 
ceeded by the Conservatives, headed by Lord Derby and Mr. 
Disraeli. 

1495. What measure enabled Mr. Disraeli to hold power? 

His reform bill, when the franchise was based on rating 
and not on rental, that is, when it was given to all persons pay- 
ing rates in boroughs, and in counties to those who occupied 
property rated at £15 a year. 

1496. What war took place in Africa in 1867 ? 

In Abyssinia, to release some English prisoners, when Mag- 
dala, the king's capital, was destroyed. 

1497. In what year did Lord Derby resign the premiership from ill 
health ? 

In 1868, and was succeeded by Mr. Disraeli. 

1498. What caused the fall of his ministry.'* 

Mr. Gladstone's resolutions in relation to the disestablish- 
ment of the Irish Church. 

1499. Who succeeded Mr. Disraeli as prime minister in 1868? 

Mr. Gladstone, assisted by Mr. Lowe, Mr. Bruce, Lord Gran- 
ville, Mr. Bright, and Mr. Childers. 

1500. How long did the Gladstone ministry hold office } 
For five years, marked by administrative reform. 



ENGLAND— QUEEN VICTORIA. 21$ 

1 50 1. What were the first measures of importance ? 

The disestablishment of the Irish Church, and the regula- 
tion of Irish land. 

1502. What was the Irish Land Act passed in 1870 ? 

The object was to give such security to the tenant as miglit 
induce him to spend money in improving the land, and pre- 
vent hasty evictions. 

1503. What other measure of importance was passed ? 

The education act, to enable the poorer classes to have the 
advantage of a primary school education. 

1 504. What great war broke out in Europe during the administration 
of Mr. Gladstone ? 

The war between France and Germany, which led to the 
overthrow of Napoleon III. 

1505. What course did the English government pursue in reference 
to this war ? 

It aimed to preserve the neutrality of the nation. 

1 506. What army measure did Mr. Gladstone pursue ? 

He abolished the purchase of commissions in the army. 

1507. What other reforms did he inaugurate ? 

He threw the universities open to the whole country with- 
out regard to religious denominations, and adopted the election 
of members of parliament by ballot. 

1508. What great peace measure did he promote .? 

He settled the claims of the United States in reference to 
the damage done by the Alahama, at a conference in Geneva. 

1509. What were the beneficial results of this Geneva conference.'* 

It established many principles in international law, and 



2l6 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

restored friendly relations with the United States, by awarding 
$20,000,000 as a compensation for the injuries inflicted by the 
Alahaina. 

1 510. What great measure did Mr. Gladstone then undertake ? 
To establish a system of Catholic university education. 

1 51 1. With what success ? 

It encountered such opposition that Mr. Gladstone dissolved 
Parliament and appealed to the nation. 

1 51 2. What was the result of the elections ? 

The defeat of the Liberals, and the return of the Conserva- 
tives to power. 

1 51 3. Who succeeded Mr. Gladstone as premier in 1874? 

Mr. Disraeli, his great rival, supported by Lord Derby, 
Lord Salisbury, Lord Carnarvon, Sir Stafford [N'orthcote, and 
Mr. Hardy. 

1 514. What was the policy of the new administration ? 

A more active interference in European politics, and a com- 
parative neglect of domestic reforms. 

1 51 5. What brilliant congress met in Berlin to which Mr. Disraeli 
went as the English representative ? 

That which attempted to settle the relations of the great 
powers. 

1516. What happened to Mr. Disraeli on his return.^ 

He was made Earl of Beaconsfield and Knight of the Gar- 
ter, with great eclat. 

1 5 17. What made his administration unpopular.^ 

His neglect of home interests, and the attempt to increase 



ENGLAND— QUEEN VICTORIA. 21/ 

the political importance of England by entangling and expen- 
sive wars. 

1 518. How long did his power last? 

Until 1880, after six years of brilliant political triumphs, 
when Mr. Gladstone returned to power. 

1 519. What were the services which Lord Beaconsfield rendered to 
his country ? 

He restored the prestige of England as a great political 
power. 

1 520. What were the services of Mr. Gladstone ? 

A succession of beneficial reforms, to advance education 
and the welfare of the middle classes. 

1 52 1. Whose pohcy did he follow up ? 

That of Sir Eobert Peel, the pupil of Mr. Canning, to de- 
velop the resources of the country and make England strong 
for defence rather than for aggression. 

1522. What marked the reign of Victoria ? 

A great increase in population and wealth. In 1820 the 
value of British exports was thirty-six million pounds, in 
1876 two hundred millions. 

1523. To what is this prosperity mainly owing? 

To the enlightened legislation of Parliament, led by great 
statesmen of all parties. 

1524. What marked the literary history of England during the reign 
of Victoria ? 

The brilliancy and variety of great novelists, like Thacke- 
ray, Dickens, Bulwer, Black, and George Eliot. 



2l8 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1525. What marked the history of science and art in this reign ? 
The labors of Sir Astley Cooper, the surgeon ; Sir Charles 

Bell, the physician ; Haydon, Wilkie, and Turner, painters ; 
Pugin, the architect ; Stephenson, the engineer ; Faraday, the 
chemist — in short the triumphs of steam and electricity and ■■ ' 
chemistry in their varied applications. 

1526. What literary men of eminence besides novelists ? 

Macaulay, Milman, Carlyle, and Grote as historians ; Ten- 
nyson and Browning as poets ; Lord Jeffrey and De Quincy 
as critics ; Bishop Wilberforce, Dean Stanley, Maurice, Dr. 
Pusey, Cardinals l^ewman and Manning as theologians; and 
Mill and Hamilton as metaphysicians. 

References.— McCarthy's History of the Reign of Queen Victoria, Annual Register, 
Lives of Lord John Russell, Sir Robert Peel, Gladstone, Disraeli, Mill's British India. 



CHAPTEK XYII. 

EuEOPEAN Continental History in the Nineteenth Cen- 
tury, FROM THE Fall of Napoleon I. 

1527. In what year did Louis Napoleon become the absolute ruler 
of France ? 

In 1851, by a coup d'etat, assisted by the Count de Morny, 
General St. Arnaud, and M. de Maupas. 

1528. What valid excuse can be given for the usurpation and de- 
struction of the constitution ? 

None whatever, unless the fact that it was ratified by a 
vote of the French nation. 

1 529. When did Napoleon assume the title of Emperor ? 
December 2, 1862, the anniversary of the coup d'etat. 

1 530. What marked the early part of his reign ? 

Great ability in government, and a wise policy directed to 
tlje development of national resources, and internal improve- 
ments. 

1 531. What domestic event of importance occurred in 1853 ? 

His marriage with Eugenie, who became the leader of 
.fashion in Europe ? 

1532. What was the organization of the government? 

Two legislative houses — the Corps Legislatif, elected by 
universal suffrage, and the Senate, nominated chiefly by him- 
self, whose members were chosen for life. 



^ 



220 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1533. What was the cabinet ? 

A body of individuals who were merely heads of depart- 
ments, responsible to him alone. 

1 534. What was the council of state ? 

An advising body, composed of dignitaries dependent on 
the emperor ? 

1535. Who appointed the judges and the presidents of departments 
and the great officials of the empire ? 

The emperor, who was virtually an absolute monarch on 
the basis of universal suffrage. 

1536. How long did the emperor devote himself to internal improve- 
ments and the consolidation of his power ? 

Until the breaking out of the Crimean war, in 1854. 

1 537. What was the cause of this war ? 

To curtail the encroachments of Kussia, under the Emperor 
Nicholas, in which he was joined by England. 

1 538. What was settled by the peace of Paris, after the fall of Sebas- 
topol, in 1856? 

The curtailment of Russian naval interests in the Black 
Sea. 

1 539. What happened the next three years ? 

A rapid development of commercial and manufacturing in- 
terests in France, which made it the first power on the Con- 
tinent. 

1540. What then occupied the mind of Napoleon III. ? 

Visions of military glory, and a desire to extend the terri- 
tories of France. 



EUROPEAN HISTORY-NINETEENTH CENTURY. 221 

1 541. What was the result of these schemes ? 

The war with Austria, in 1859, ostensibly undertaken for 
the liberation of Italy. 

1 542. What decisive battles marked this war ? 

That of Magenta, won by MacMahon, and that of Solferino 
won by Marshal Niel. 

1 543. What celebrated treaty closed the war ? 

That of Yillafranca, by which France gained Savoy and 
Nice, Piedmont gained Lombardy, and Austria was crippled. 

1 544. How did this war otherwise benefit Italy ? 

JSTot at all, and the Italians were disappointed and indig- 
nant. 

1545. What great Italian statesman was in league with Napoleon ? 
Count Cavour, who contributed to the enlargement of the 

power of King Victor Immanuel. 

1546. What famous treaty was made with England in i860 ? 

A commercial trade, which adopted in part the principles 
of Cobden and free trade, and removed many obstacles in the 
commercial intercourse batween France and England. 

1547. What event shook the political ascendency of France ? 

The war between Prussia and Austria in 1866, which made 
Prussia the head of the German nation. 

1548. What mistake did Napoleon commit ? 

Not to have assisted Austria, and preserved the balance of 
power in Germany. 

I 549. What, however, did he succeed in doing ? 

In persuading Austria to ceed to him the province of 



222 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

Yenetia, which he handed over to Victor Immanuel through 
the diplomacy of Count Cavour. 

1550. What foolish political blunder did Napoleon commit after the 
Austrian and Prussian war ? 

An attempt to convert Mexico into a vassal of France, in 
order to increase his popularity, now on the wane. 

1 551. What resulted from this Mexican conquest? 

He was compelled to withdraw his troops from Mexico by 
the threatening attitude of the United States. 

1552. What was the fate of Maximilian, an Austrian prince, whom 
Napoleon seated on the throne of Mexico ? 

He was taken by the Mexicans and shot, in 1867. 

1553. How did this Mexican failure affect Napoleon ? 

It broke his prestige and undermined his popularity. 

1554. What event occurred in Italy, in 1867, which involved France? 
The uprising of the Italians, under Garibaldi, and the attack 

on Rome. 

1555. What prevented the success of Garibaldi ? 

The aid which Napoleon gave to the Pope, which secured 
the allegiance of the French Ultramontane priests. 

1556. What disturbed the political tranquillity of France in 1868 ? 
The hostile attacks of the ultra liberal press, especially of 

the Lanterne, edited by Rochefort. 

1557. What was the most important result of the victories of Prussia 
to France ? 

They made war with France inevitable. 

1558. What was the pretence which provoked hostilities? 

The alleged insults which the French ambassador to Prussia 



EUROPEAN HISTORY— NINETEENTH CENTURY. 223 

receiTed from the king, and tlie insolent demands of France 
that no Prussian prince should occupy the throne of Spain. 

1559. What powerful ally failed Napoleon? 

Austria, because France had failed her in the struggle with 
Prussia. 

1 560. When did the war break out ? 

In 1870, under the ministry of Ollivier, when Kouher was 
president of the senate, the Due de Grammoot foreign minis- 
ter, and Marshal Leboeuf minister of war. 

1 561. On what did Napoleon and his ministry count on the outbreak 
of hostilities ? 

The assistance of the South German states. 

1 562. What was the condition of the French armies for the approach- 
ing contest ? 

They were unprepared, and less in number, and poorer in 
equipment than what was supposed by the government, al- 
though commanded by MacMahon, Bazaine, Frossard, Canro- 
bert, Douay and Bourbaki, marshals and generals who had 
gained distinction in former wars. 

1563. Who were the Prussians commanded by ? 

Nominally by General Steinmetz, Priii -c Frederic Charles, 
and the Crown Prince, Frederic William, though Count von 
Moltke was the inspiring genius. 

1 564. How large were the Prussian forces ? 

One third larger than the French, and better equipped and 
better officered. 

1565. What was the result of the war ? 

A series of brilliant victories on the part of the Prussians, 



224 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

ending in tlie confinement of Marshal Bazaine, with nearly half 
of the French forces, in Metz; the victory of Sedan, when 
Napoleon himself was taken prisoner, and the investment of 
Paris by the conquerors. 

1 566. What was the effect of these unexpected and unparalleled disas- 
ters on the French ? 

They deposed the emperor, and set up a provisional gov- 
ernment. 

1567. Who were the prominent French leaders in changing the gov- 
ernment ? 

Gambetta, Jules Favre, General Trochu, Cremieux, and 
Glais-Bizoin. 

1568. What great feat did Gambetta perform ? 

He escaped from Paris in a balloon, on the 9th of October, 
reached Tours, and became virtual dictator of France. 

1569. What did he propose to do ? 

To raise new armies and march to the relief of Bazaine, 
shut up in Metz, with nearly 170,000 troops. 

1570. On his failure to relieve Bazaine, what resulted ? 

Bazaine was obliged to capitulate to Prince Frederic 
Charles, with three marshals and his whole army. 

1 571. What followed ? 

The surrender of Paris on the 28th of January, after nearly 
five months' siege. 

1 572. What great man rendered important services at this crisis ? 

The aged statesman, Thiers, who became chief of the execu- 
tive power, chosen by the new assembly, which met at Bour- 
deaux to settle terms of peace. 



I 






EUROPEAN HISTORY— NINETEENTH CENTURY. 22$ 

1573. What terms did the conqueror exact ? 

Five milliards of francs for the expenses of the war, and the 
surrender of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany. 

1574. What new peril threatened France ? 

The assumption of power in Paris by the Commune, im- 
bued with the most radical docti-ines of communism. 

1575. What course did the assembly and the executive power at Ver- 
sailles adopt ? 

Great moderation and patience until a sufficient force could 
be raised to subdue the city, under the command of Mac- 
Mahon. 

1576. What damage did the Commune of Paris succeed in effecting 
before the reduction of the city? 

It set lire to the Tuileries, the Hotel de Yille, the Louvre, 
and pulled down the column which Napoleon L had erected 
in the Place Vendome, and killed the Archbishop of Paris, the 
President of the Court of Cassation, and sixty other prominent 
citizens. 

1577. What did the Assembly do on the fall of the Commune ? 
It restored the republic, and made Thiers president. 

1578. What were the principal acts of Thiers ? 

He surrounded himself with an able cabinet, including 
Remusat, Dufaure, and Casimir Perier, paid to Prussia the 
indemnity, and restored order and law. 

1579. How long did Thiers retain power? 

Only two years, on account of factions and the intrigues 
of rival parties. 



226 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1580. Who succeeded him as president ? 

Marshal MacMahon, a strong Catholic, without sympathy 
for republican institutions. 

1 581. Who was his principal minister? 

The Due de Broglie, who sought the restoration of the 
monarchy. 

1582. What defeated this scheme? 

The bigotry of the Count de Chambord, the heir of the 
elder branch of the Bourbons, who agreed to reign with par- 
liamentary institutions, but insisted on returning to France 
under the white banner of his ancestors, instead of the tri- 
color flag. 

1583. When was the constitution which is now the organic law of 
France adopted ? 

In 1875, which required that the president should be 
elected by a joint convention of the senate and the deputies, 
and that the latter chamber should only be dissolved by the 
consent of the senate, and that the president should exercise 
the veto power. 

1584. Who became the chief of the republican cabinet, under Mac- 
Mahon, in 1876? 

Dufaure, who was succeeded by Jules Simon, a veteran 
republican, and he again by De Broglie, who was exceedingly 
unpopular. 

1585. What resulted from this attempt of MacMahon to rule with 
the assistance of men hostile to republican institutions ? 

A violent opposition from the chamber of deputies, which 
compelled the president to reinstate Dufaure and other repub- 
lican leaders. 



EUROPEAN HISTORY— NINETEENTH CENTURY. 22/ 

1586. What has been the policy of the French government since the 
restoration of the republic ? 

To increase the army, and perfect military weapons and 
discipline, and prepare for future war. 

1587. What marvellous fact has been established by the republic ? 
The rapid recuperation of France, and the astonishing de- 
velopment of national resources. 

1588. What remarkable man arose in Prussia after the overthrow of 
Louis Philippe in France } 

Count Bismarck, an uncompromising enemy to free insti- 
tutions, who Urst became prominent at the German diet at 
Frankfort, and then was sent to Eussia as ambassador, when he 
formed a friendship with Gortschakoff, the Russian chancellor. 

1589. When did he become minister of the king, William I. ? 

In 1862, su]3ported by Yan Roon, minister of war, and Yon 
Moltke, whose military genius he perceived. 

1 590. What marked his chancellorship ? 

Contest with the lower house in behalf of absolute power, 
and schemes to secure German unity under the leadership of 
Prussia. 

1 591. What unscrupulous act marked his administration? 

That of wresting from Denmark the duchies of Schleswig 
and Holstein. 

1 592. What was his next great act ? 

To prepare for an aggressive war in Austria. 

1593. What invention facilitated the designs of Prussia ? 

The invention of the needle-gun, by Dreyse, which was 



228 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

loaded at the breecli, and which was adopted by the Prussian 
army. 

1 594. What famous battle settled the war with Austria ? 

That of Sadowa, July 3, 1866, won by Prince Charles 
Frederic nominally, but really by Count Moltke, with the as- 
sistance of the needle-gun. 

1595. What were the immediate results of this victory ? 

A new organization of Germany, and the absorption of 
Hanover, Hesse, JSTassau, and Frankfort with Prussia, which 
made Prussia the leading state of Germany. 

1 596. What was the ultimate result of the war ? 

The jealousy of France, ending in war and in the aggran- 
dizement of Prussia. 

1597. What title did the king assume after the victorious contest with 
France ? 

Emperor of Germany. 

1598. What happened to Austria after the revolution which hurled 
Louis Philippe from the throne ? 

General discontents and a spirit of revolution. 

1 599. What happened to Prince Metternich, who had ruled Austria 
since the conquest of Vienna ? 

His palace was sacked by the mob, and the emperor was 
compelled to dimiss him. 

1600. What happened to the Emperor Ferdinand? 

He fled from his capital, and was compelled to yield to the 
requests of his subjects for new privileges. 



EUROPEAN HISTORY-NINETEENTH CENTURY. 229 

1601. What happened in his Italian province under the stimulus of 
revolutionary ideas ? 

Lombardy and Yenetia revolted, Hungary declared herself 
independent, and Bohemia took up arms. 

1602. What course did the emperor pursue in these perils ? 

He abdicated in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph, a lad 
of eighteen. 

1603. Under whom was rebellious Hungary marshalled ? 

Louis Kossuth, who aspired to make his country indepen- 
dent of Austria. 

1604. What course did the Emperor Francis Joseph pursue, when he 
found himself unable to subdue the Hungarians ? 

He apphed for aid to Nicholas, the Czar of Russia, 1849, 
and thus subdued the rebellion. 

1605. What general became prominent for his severities ? 

The Austrian General Haynau, who barbarously put to 
death all the Hungarian generals who fell into his hands. 

1606. What concessions did the Emperor of Austria then make to his 
subjects ? 

He gave a constitutional parliament, and unfettered the 
press, and established religious toleration. 

1607. How long did Austria enjoy these concessions ? 

Only three years, when the constitution was cancelled. 

1608. What great concession was made to Hungary in 1867 ? 

She obtained her own legislature, chosen by universal suf- 
frage. 

1609. What did Austria gain after all her national humiliations ? 
A constitution, and renewed prosperity. 



230 i^OINTS OF HISTORY. 

1610. When aid Italy make a renewed effort for freedom ? 
In 1848, under Mazzini and Garibaldi. 

161 1. What waj the aim of the uprising under these leaders ? 

To expel the Anstrians from Italy, and secure more liberal 
institutions. 

1 61 2. Who at first seemed to favor this liberal movement ? 

Pope Pius IX., but he soon yielded to the influences that 
have ever controlled the papal policy. 

161 3. To whom did the patriots look for aid in this revolution? 

To Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, who, after an unsuc- 
cessful effort to aid the popular cause, resigned his crown to 
his son, Yictor Emmanuel, 1849. 

1614. Who reinstated the pope in his authority and suppressed the 
revolution ? 

Louis Kapoleon, lately made president, wlio sent General 
Oudinot, with 40,000 men, to Rome. 

161 5. What illustrious man revived the hopes of his countrymen after 
the fall of Garibaldi ? 

Count Cavour, the greatest statesman of his age. 

1 61 6. What great services did he render to Italy ? 

He secured Italian nationality, aided by the Emperor ISTa- 
poleon. 

1617. What secured this aid? 

By joining France and England in the Crimean war. 

161 8. What accession of territory did Sardinia secure by the battle 
of Solferino, when Austria was defeated by France, in i860? 

Lombardy, which became the seat of the government of 



m 



EUROPEAN HISTORY— NINETEENTH CENTURY. 23 1 

Victor Emmanuel, given in exchange for J^ice and Savoy, the 
earlier possessions of the royal house of Sardinia. 

161 9. Who made great opposition to the surrender of Nice to 
France ? 

Garibaldi, who had headed an insurrection against Naples. 

1620. What was his success in Naples ? 

He drove away the Bourbon king, became virtual dictator, 
but resigned on the vote of Neapolitans to join the kingdom 
of Sardinia. 

1 62 1. How was the union of Venetia with Sardinia brought about ? 
By the victory of Sadowa, when the Prussians exacted the 

cession of this province to France, who restored it to Sardinia. 

1622. What state was the last to resist the unity of Italy under Victor 
Emmanuel ? 

The Papal States, under Pius IX., upheld by French 
bayonets. 

1623. When was the pope forced to yield up his temporal sovereignty ? 
In 1870, on the fall of the Emperor Napoleon III., when 

Victor Emmanuel became king of United Italy, by means 
chiefly of the labor and genius of Cavour. 

1624. What event of importance happened in Russia after the eman- 
cipation of serfs by the Emperor Nicholas in 1842 ? 

The great eastern march of the armies of Nicholas, in 1847, 
just after England had gained possession of the Punjaiib. 

1625. What arrested this progress of Russia towards the East? 
The Crimean war, in 1854, when Sebastopol was taken, and 

the Pussian navy driven out of the Black Sea. 



232 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1626. What effect had the misfortune of the Crimean war on the 
Emperor Nicholas ? 

He died broken-hearted, and was succeeded, in 1855, by 
Alexander 11. 

1627. What great reform did this emperor bestow on Russia? 
The emancipation of the serfs, in 1862. 

1628. What other reform did he inaugurate ? 

He reconstructed the judiciary system, and instituted pro- 
vincial assemblies chosen by the people, and promoted religious 
toleration. 

1629. What arrested his reform ? 

The Polish revolt in 1863, which reintroduced the despotic 
rule of Nicholas. 

1630. In what war did Alexander embark in 1876? 

In a war with Turkey, with a view to secure religious priv- 
ileges to the Christian population of the Turkish provinces. 

1631. What prevented him from occupying Constantinople after he 
had defeated the Turks in several important battles ? 

The interference of the other great powers, especially Eng- 
land, then ruled by Lord Beaconsfield. 

1632. What great man has controlled the policy of Russia under the 
Emperor Alexander ? 

Prince Gortschakoff, chancellor of the empire, one of the 
greatest statesmen of modern times, ranking with Bismarck, 
Cavour, Thiers, and Gladstone. 

1633. What was the result of the Turkish war on Turkey? 
It destroyed its political power. 



EUROPEAN HISTORY— NINETEENTH CENTURY. 233 

1634. What provinces did Turkey lose ? 

Bulgaria, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Cyprus, Bessarabia, 
Batoum, Kars, and Ardahan in Asia. 

1635. What misfortune befel the papacy in addition to the loss of 
temporal authority ? 

Conflict with Prussia in reference to education and mar- 
riage, and expulsion of the Jesuits from Germany. 

1636. How long did Pio Nono survive the loss of his temporal sov- 
ereignty ? 

About eight years, when he was succeeded by Gregory 
XIIL, in 1878. 

1637. What has most signally marked the nineteenth century ? 

The overthrow of those barriers which have prevented pro- 
gress in constitutional liberty in all the states of Europe. 



CHAPTER XYIII. 

American History from the Close of the Revolutionary 

War. 

1638. What was the first event of importance after the Revolutionary 
war? 

The convention which met in Philadelphia, 1787, to frame 
a constitution for the United States. 

1639. Who were the most eminent of the fifty-four delegates ? 
Washington, Franklin, Hamilton, Livingston, Dickerson, 

Pinckney, and Patterson. 

1640. What subject caused animated discussions, and seemed to 
obstruct the formation of a constitution ? 

The subject of slavery. 

1 64 1. How was it settled ? 

By compromise, not on abstract grounds of right and 
wrong, but on the principles of expediency. 

1642. What was the next most important question which was dis- 
cussed ? 

The ratio of representation from the various States, which 
gave rise to the two great political parties which divided the 
nation,. 

1643. What were these parties? 

The Federalist and the Republican, the former advocating 
centralization, and the latter State rights. 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 235 

1644. On what were all parties agreed ? 

On the necessity of three branches of government — the 
executive, the judiciary, and the legislature. 

1645. What was settled respecting the functions of the general gov- 
ernment ? 

That it should have absohite control over commerce, tariffs, 
revenues, post-offices, patents, foreign relations, the army and 
navy, peace and war. 

1646. When was the constitution finally adopted by the several States ? 
In 1788, after much opposition from the larger States, 

whose rights seemed to conflict with those of the general 
government. 

1647. What remarkable series of State papers, or political essays, had 
a great influence in securing the final adoption of the constitution ? 

The Federalist, written chiefly by Hamilton, Jay, and 
Madison, more than half of which was written by Hamilton. 

1648. Who was the first President of the United States, under the new 
constitution ? 

George Washington, elected 1789. 

1649. What remarkable man died during the first year of Washing- 
ton's administration ? 

Benjamin Franklin, at the age of eighty-five. 

1650. Who was the animating genius of Washington's administra- 
tion ? 

Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, who estab- 
lished the national credit by his financial genius. 

1 65 1. What were the great measures of the first Congress ? 

The settlement of the public debt, and tlie act that Con- 



236 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

gress has no authority to interfere with the emancipation or 
treatment of slaves in any of tlie States, were the most impor- 
tant. 

1652. What other acts of importance were passed ? 

Those which regulated tariffs, the import duty being 
increased, at the suggestion of Hamilton, both for protection 
and revenue. 

1653. When was the national bank established ? 
In 1791, with a capital of ten millions. 

1654. What great military calamity happened in 1791 ? 

The defeat of General St. Clair, on the Wabash, by the In- 
dians, with a loss of 900 men. 

1655. What great political parties were formed about the time of the 
second Congress ? 

The Federalists and Republicans, the former headed by 
Adams and Hamilton, the latter by Burr and Jefferson. 

1656. What was the line of difference between these parties } 

That pertaining to State rights and centralization of power 
in the hands of Congress. The Republican feared the abuse 
of the central power and the absorption of the States in the 
general government ; it also was opposed to a bank and the 
assumption of State debts. 

1657. What was the state of the country at the close of the first 
administration of Washington.? 

The establishment of national credit, the prosperity of com- 
merce, and a general stimulus to industry. 

1658. What events marked the second administration of Washington, 
March 4, 1793-97 ? 

Political complications with France, produced by Genet, the 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 237 

Frencli minister ; arrogant claims of England in reference to 
neutral vessels ; the creation of a navj ; the whiskey rebellion 
in Pennsylvania ; General Wayne's victory over the Indians, 
and the bitterness of rival political parties. 

1659. What important treaty marked the second administration of 
Washington ? 

That made with Great Britain, negotiated by Jay, Novem- 
ber 19, 1791, which removed many subjects of irritation between 
the two countries, which settled the northeastern boundary, 
and secured equality to American vessels in English ports, and 
specified contraband articles. 

1660. Who bitterly opposed this treaty ? 

Jefferson and his party generally, who hated Great Britain. 

1 66 1. What was the general policy of Washington ? 
Conciliation and neutrality in European wars. 

1662. How were difficulties with the Indians settled ? 

By a treaty, 1796, by which a tract of 25,000 square miles 
in Ohio was ceded to the United States, and various posts for 
trading, for which the nation gave the Indians, who represented 
twelve different tribes, $20,000, and an annuity of $9,500. 

1663. What new States were admitted to the Union during the admin- 
istration ? 

Tennessee, Ohio, Vermont, and Kentucky. 

1664. When did the public career of Washington close? 

March 4, 1797, when he delivered his celebrated farewell 
address. 

1665. Who succeeded Washington as president ? 

John Adams, of Massachusetts, who had distinguished him- 
self as orator and statesman in the trouble with Great Britain. 



238 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1666. What was among the first of his important measures ? 

To send Jolm Marshall, of Yirginia, and Elbridge Gerry to 
France, to co-operate with Pinckney, then minister, to arrange 
difficulties with the French government. 

1667. What were these difficulties ? 

The vexation of Republican France that the United States, 
under the policy of Washington, would take no active part in 
French politics. 

1668. What event plunged the whole country in grief about this time ? 
The duel, in 1804, between Alexander Hamilton and Aaron 

Burr, then vice-president of the United States, and the death 
of Hamilton at the early age of forty-six, the ablest statesman 
of the country. 

1669. What was the penalty Burr paid for this murder ? 

He was forced to flee, lost all political influence, and be- 
came infamous. 

1670. What scheme did the disappointed Burr embark in? 

That of erecting a monarchy, of which New Orleans was to 
be the capital. 

1 67 1. Why was he not tried, convicted, and punished for high 
treason ? 

There was not evidence enough to convict him, and he was 
acquitted. He lived to the age of eighty, deserted, poor, and 
lonely. As a lawyer he was the equal of Hamilton, and sec- 
ond to him only in political genius ; but he never had the con- 
fidence of men in power. 

1672. What serious difficulties occurred with England which led to 
war? 

The claim of England to the right of search, which in- 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 239 

flicted great distress on American commerce, and the seizure 
of many American vessels. 

1673. What still more serious difficulties ? 

The retaliation of the English government on France, after 
Napoleon had issued his famous Berlin and Milan decrees to 
exclude British manufactures from the Continent. 

1674. What was the nature of this retaliation ? 

The orders in council, which declared the whole coast of 
Europe in a state of blockade, and prohibited neutral vessels 
from trade with the Continent, so that American commerce 
was in danger of being swept from the ocean, by the hostili- 
ties and rivalries of France and England. 

1675. What measure did Congress then pursue ? 

To decree an embargo, 1807, or a prohibition of American 
ships to leave their ports. 

1676. What was the effect of the embargo? 

To distress and annoy American ship-owners, and the gen- 
eral indignation of the country, which compelled Congress to 
declare non-intercourse with both England and France, 1809. 

1677. What was the general policy of Jefferson ? 

To diminish the national debt, repeal direct taxes, reduce 
the tariff, maintain friendly relation with the Indians, add 
new territories, extend the liberty of the press, and favor un- 
bounded religious toleration. 

1678. Who succeeded Jefferson in 1809? 
James Madison, at a great crisis. 

1679. What was this crisis ? 

Difficulties with England, arising out of jealousy of the 



240 POINTS OF HISTORY, 

risiog greatness of the country, and intrigues with the Indians, 
the seizure of American vessels, the impressment of American 
sailors, and the wanton disregard of the rights of neutrals — 
evils no longer to be endured. 

1680. And what was the consequence ? 

The declaration of war against Great Britain, June, 1812. 

1 68 1. What was the first event of the war in 181 2? 

The surprise and seizure of Mackinaw, the key and depot 
of the free trade of the northwest, by the English, July IT. 

1682. What followed? 

The invasion of Canada by General Hull, governor of Michi- 
gan territory, which proved a series of disasters, both from the 
attacks of Indians and the superior management of the Eng- 
lish, under General Brock, so that he was compelled to retreat, 
and finally to surrender his whole force without striking a 
blow. 

1683. What then occurred ? 

A second invasion of Canada, with three armies, one under 
General Harrison, at the head of Lake Erie ; another under 
General Yan Eensselaer, at Lewiston, and a third under Gen- 
eral Dearborn, near Plattsburg. 

1684. What general was the first to invade Canada ? 

General Yan Kensselaer, who only succeeded in crossing the 
river, being defeated by Brock on Queenstovvn Heights. 

1685. What success attended General Dearborn ? 

None. He made a feeble attempt to invade Canada, but 
his troops refused to cross the line. 



AMERICAN HISTORY, 24I 

1686. What successes on the water redeemed the disasters on the 
land ? 

The capture of the British frigate Guerriere^ by the Consti- 
tution, commanded by Captain Hall ; that of the brig Frolic^ 
by the sloop of war Wasp, commanded by Captain Jones ; the 
capture of the frigate Macedonian, by the frigate United 
States, commanded by Captain Decatur; and the capture of 
the frigate Java, by the Constitution y commanded by Commo- 
dore Bainbridge. 

1687. How many other English vessels were captured by privateers ? 
ITearly 250, upwards of 50 of which were armed, carrying 

more than 500 guns. 

1688. What was the effect on the country by these naval successes ? 
They inspired both enthusiasm and confidence, and led to 

the formation of numerous volunteer corps, and the construc- 
tion of four ships of the line, six frigates, six sloops of war. 

1689. What marked the politics of the country at the beginning of 
the war ? 

The entrance into Congress of several eminent statesmen, 
including Daniel Webster, Henry Clay, Jeremiah Mason, 
Charles J. Ingersoll, John Forsyth, Richard Stockton, Timothy 
Pickering, and Timothy Pitkin. 

1690. What land operations marked the campaign of 1813.? 

The defeat of General Winchester by the British and In- 
dians ; the defence of Fort Mississippi, by General Harrison, 
and the defeat of General Clay, which left the northwest open 
to British depredation. 

1691. What compensated for these disasters? 

The victory of Conmiodore Perry on Lake Erie, over Com- 



242 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

modore Barclay, which opened a passage to British territory, 
and the successes of General Harrison over General Proctor on 
the Eiver Thames, which regained the northwestern territory. 

1692. What disasters now happened to the Americans ? 

The arrival of a large British fleet, commanded by Admirals 
Warren and Cockburn, on the American waters, which effec- 
tually blockaded the coasts of Delaware and Yirginia, and to 
which force the Americans could oppose nothing. 

1693. What marked military operations on the lakes and the north- 
western frontier in 1813 ? 

Indecision or unfortunate movements, of no historical im- 
portance, which led General Dearborn to resign. 

1694. What important failure marked the close of the campaign? 
The unsuccessful invasion of Canada, at enormous expense, 

and with a large force, under General Wilkinson and General 
Wade Hampton, chiefly in consequence of jealousy and dis- 
agreement between these generals. 

1695. What somewhat atoned for these disasters ? 

The successes of General Jackson in the South, against the 
Indians, especially the Creeks and Seminoles, attended by In- 
dian atrocities. 

1696. Who rendered great services to General Jackson in this warfare 
against the Indians? 

General Pinckney, governor of South Carolina, one of the 
greatest of the Revolutionary patriots, and for some time min- 
ister to London, and an influential member of Congress. 

1697. What resulted from the victories of Jackson over the Creeks ? 
The complete ruin of this powerful Indian tribe. 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 243 

1698. What naval disaster happened to the Americans in 181 3 ? 
The loss of the Chesapeake, in Boston harbor, commanded 

by Captain Lawrence, and of the Argus, commanded by Cap- 
tain Allen. 

1699. What marked the campaign of 181 4? 

The battles of Chippewa, Niagara, and Bridgewater, which 
redeemed the military reputation of the United States, and m 
which General Scott first distinguished himself. 

1700. What naval victory, gained by Americans, followed these suc- 
cesses ? 

That of Plattsburg, on Lake Champlain, won by Commo- 
dore Perry, assisted by General Macomb ; on the land the most 
decisive of the war. 

1 70 1. What naval combats took place on the ocean ? 

The capture of the Essex and the President, by the En- 
glish, and the capture of the Cyane, Levant, and Penguin, by 
the Americans. 

1702. What more serious enterprise was undertaken by the British ? 
The entrance of Chesapeake Bay by a squadron under 

Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane, which succeeded in reaching 
Washington, and in destroying the dockyards and the pubhc 
buildings, for wluch disaster General Armstrong, secretary of 
war, was so severely censured that he was obliged to resign. 

1703. What did the British then attempt ? 

To capture Baltimore, with the co-operation of a land force 
of 5,000 men ; but they were foiled by General Strieker, and 
compelled to retire. 



244 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1704. What did the English then contemplate? 

The capture of ISTew Orleans, with a large force of 16,000 
men under General Packenham. 

1705. What prevented his success ? 

The gallant defence of New Orleans, January 8, 1815, by 
General Jackson, with only 3,000 men, which compelled the 
defeated English to retire, 18th of January. 

1706. What had taken place before this battle was fought, the most 
brilliant of the war ? 

A treaty of peace had been signed at Ghent, December 14, 
1814, which left unnoticed the very things which had pro- 
voked the war, impressments and rights of neutrals. 

1707. What were the results of this war ? 

The establishment of the naval power of the United States 
and the demonstration of the impossibility of contending with 
the Americans on their own ground, with any hope of perma- 
nent success. 

1708. What was the result of the war in a financial point of view } 

It largely increased the national debt, crippled tlie com- 
merce of the country, and caused a great fall of prices when 
peace was declared, but led to the establishment of extensive 
manufactures. 

1709. What important bill passed Congress on the 8th of June, 181 5 ? 
To establish a national bank, with a capital of thirty-five 

millions of dollars, to be located in Philadelphia. 

1 710. What other important bill was passed ? 

A new tariff, designed to protect American manufactures, 
advocated with great ability by Daniel Webster and Henry 
Clay. 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 245 

171 1. What great movements marked the country during the adminis- 
tration of Madison, 1809-17? 

ITew efforts in behalf of education, a great religious revival, 
emigration to the new western states and territories, the break- 
ing up of political parties, and a great advance in civilization 
and population. 

17 1 2. Who succeeded James Madison as President of the United, 
States ? 

James Monroe, of Virginia, who made choice of John 
Quincy Adams as his secretary of state. 

171 3. What was the first important event which marked his adminis- 
tration ? 

The Creek and Seminole war. 

1 714. Who conducted this war ? 

General Andrew Jackson, who had distinguished himself 
at the battle of New Orleans. 

171 5. What was his course with the Indians, who had taken refuge in 
Florida ? 

Extreme rigor and severity, severely censured by the peo- 
ple, but approved by the government. 

1716. What followed this war? 

The cession of Florida, by Spain, to the United States, for 
a consideration of five millions of dollars. 

1717. What States were admitted into the Union during the first 
administration of Monroe ? 

Illinois, December 3, 1818, originally settled by the French ; 
Alabama, December, 1S19, which had long been the hunt- 
ing ground of the Indians, and Maine, March 3, 1820. 



246 ro/x7^s OF ///sro/;']'. 

171 8. What great political question agitated Congress during this 
administration ? 

That wliieli related to the admission of Missouri into the 
Union. 

1719. What was the ground of controversy ? 

AVhether it should be admitted as a slave or free State, it 
hoiuii" maintained bv Northern men that no additional State 
tt^lerating slaves should be admitted into the Union. 

1720. How was the question settled ? 

Bv a compromise proposed bv Henry Clay, that slavery 
should be forever prohibited in that part of the Missouri 
territory north of 364 degrees of latitude. 

17^1. What marked the second term of the administration of Monroe ? 
Animated discussions in Cono-ress in reference to taritfs, in 
"which Clay, Webster, and Calhoun took the lead. 

1722. What measuie did the president recommend in reference to 
South America ? 

That the independence of the revolted colonies of Spain 
should be acknowledged, which was adopted by Congress* 

1723. On the breaking up of the old Federal party, what division 
took place ? 

A division of the old Republican party — one part headed 
by John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay, the other by Gen- 
eral Jackson and Calhoun, of South Carolina. 

1724. What illustrious Frenchman visited this countr}' during the 
administration of Monroe ? 

General La Fayette, who visited all the States of the 
Union, and was univei-sally treated with great distinction, both 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 247 

by the people and CongresH. The national legislature beBtuwed 
upon him a township and ^200,000 as a rcrnunerHtiori for liis 
past services. 

1725. What marked the history of the country unrler the administra- 
tion of Monroe ? 

An unexampled prosperity, in the increase of wealth and 
])opulation, in education and philanthropic enterprise, in the 
increase of newspapers, and a general impulse to all internal 
improvements. 

1726. When was John Quincy Adams inaugurated as president ? 
March 4, 1825, with Henry Clay as secretary of state. 

1727. What was the state of the country on his accession to power ? 

A spirit of commercial gambling, produced by the unex- 
ampled prosperity after the war with England, but followed 
by general revulsion and great depression of prices. 

1728. What marked the year 1826? 

The death of Adams and Jefferson, on the anniversary of 
the national independence, which called out numerous orations, 
the most remarkable of which was that delivered by Daniel 
Webster, then in the height of his populaiiry. 

1729. What were the most important acts of Congress in this admin- 
istration ? 

That in relation to tariff, by which greater protection was 
given to American manufacturers, and which was ably advo- 
cated by Daniel Webster. 

1730. What fatal scourge invaded the United States and Canada 
in 1832 ? 

The Asiatic cholera. 



248 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1 73 1. By whom was John Quincy Adams succeeded? 
By General Andrew Jackson, March, 1849. 

1732. What marked his administration? 

General removals from office, on the ground that spoils 
belong to victors ; the veto for a renewal of the charter for a 
United States bank ; modification of the tariffs ; wars with the 
Indians, and a renewed inflation of all values, from the pros- 
perity of the country. 

1733. What were among the causes of prosperity ? 

The vast immigration of foreigners, and the commence- 
ment of a vast system of internal improvements. 

1734. What were the difficulties with the Indians ? 

The hostile incursion of the Winnebagoes, Sacs, and Foxes, 
of the Upper Mississippi, under the celebrated Black Hawk. 

1735. Who was eminently successful in subduing them ? 
Generals Scott and Atkinson. 

1736. What marked the year 1852? 

The commencement of difficulties with the Southern States, 
on account of tariffs, during which South Carolina threatened 
to secede from the Union. 

1737. What was the course taken by the president? 

A vigorous and summary resolution to suppress the rebel- 
lion, favored by John C. Calhoun, so that all opposition to the 
general government was withdrawn. 

1738. What course did Jackson pursue in opposition to the United 
States Bank ? 

He removed the national deposits, which led to great com-*" 
mercial embarrassments. 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 249 

1739. What memorable event occurred in 1835 ? 

Texas rebelled against the government of Mexico, wliicli 
had abolished slavery. 

1740. With what success? 

Most marked success, since the Texans were supported by 
volunteers from the Southern States. 

1 741. Who headed the Texan forces? 

General Houston, whose military successes secured the 
independence of Texas, which immediately restored slavery. 

1742. What was the result ? 

A general agitation in reference to slavery itself, denounced 
by William Lloyd Garrison, and other reformers among the 
people, and by John Quincy Adams in the House of Represen- 
tatives, by the presentation of petitions for the abolition of 
slavery. 

1743. What course did Congress adopt? 

That it had no right, according to the constitution, to inter- 
fere with slavery in any of the States, and that it ought not to 
interfere with slavery in the District of Columbia. 

1744. What trouble existed with Seminole Indians ? 

The renewed hostility of these Indians, from the prepara- 
tions made for their removal from East Florida. 

1745. What treaty had been previously made with them ? 

One in which they agreed to remove beyond the Missis- 
sippi, but a large part refused to go. 

1746. What chieftain distinguished himself at their head? 
Osceola, who for three times maintained his ground. 



250 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1747. What happened to the business relations of the country in 
1837? 

A great mercantile reaction from the excess of speculation, 
which extended throughout the country. 

1748. What added to the distress of business men ? 

A great lire in New York, in 1835, which destroyed 

$20,000,000. 

1 749. How long did General Jackson continue in office ? 

Eight years, or two terms, when he was succeeded by 
Martin Yan Buren, in 1837, who continued the policy of " his 
illustrious predecessor." 

1750. What calamity happened to the country the first year of his 
administration ? 

The suspension of specie payments, and general bankruptcy 
in consequence of the speculation which culminated in 1836. 

1 75 1. What effect had this commercial distress on the country? 

To increase agricultural industry, and produce habits of 
economy. 

1752. What political movement took place in consequence of the 
financial distress of the country ? 

An extra session of Congress, which agitated the famous 
sub-treasury scheme of Yan Buren, which was to place the 
public revenues in the custody of commissioners instead of 
banks. 

1753. What irritating event disturbed the peaceable relations of the 
government in 1838? 

The burning of the Caroline by the Canadians, which had 
been seized by American adventurers to foment revolt and 
rebellion in Canada. 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 25 1 

1754. What other event rendered this year memorable ? 

The division of the Presbyterian Church into two bodies, 
called Old and New School, j^roduced by the trial of Eev. 
Albert Barnes, an eminent clergyman in Philadelphia, for 
which he was ultimately acquitted by the General Assembly. 

1755. What broke up the dominant political party which sustained 
Jackson and Van Buren ? 

The commercial distresses of the country, and distrust of 
political leaders. 

1756. Whom did the opposition party, or Whigs, set up as a candi- 
date for president in the presidential campaign of 1840 ? 

General Harrison, the " hero of Tippecanoe," with unex- 
ampled enthusiasm. 

1757. On the inauguration of General Harrison, whom did he select 
as secretary of state and principal adviser ? 

Daniel "Webster, then the most influential, as he was always 
the most able, statesman the country has produced. 

1758. How long did Harrison continue president ? 

Only for a few months, being killed with the strain of un- 
accustomed duties. 

1759. Who succeeded him in 1841 ? 

John Tyler, who was vice-president, and who retained the 
cabinet of his predecessor. 

1760. What important action did Congress take during the adminis- 
tration of Tyler ? 

It repealed the sub-treasury law, and established a uni- 
form system of bankruptcy throughout the United States, in 
consequence of which public distress vanished, while innumer- 
able bankrupts were declared. 



252 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1 761. What measure of importance did Congress next propose? 

To establish another United States bank ; but the action of 
Congress was defeated bj President Tyler, who vetoed the 
bill. 

1762. And what was the consequence ? 

The . cabinet resigned, with the exception of Daniel Web- 
ster, whose services were imperatively needed to prevent a 
rapture with England. 

1763. What was the great event of this administration ? 

The Ashburton treaty, negotiated by Daniel Webster with 
Lord Ashburton, August 20, 1842, which settled the question 
of the north-eastern boundary, and which prevented a war with 
England. 

1764. Who rendered essential aid to Webster in negotiating this 
treaty ? 

General Scott, who allayed the hostilities of the people of 
Maine, who would have plunged the nation into war. 

1765. Who succeeded Mr. Webster as secretary of state, after he had 
secured peace with England ? 

Mr. Upshur, but being accidentally killed by the bursting 
of a gun on the frigate Princeton^ with General Gilmer, secre- 
tary of war, he was succeeded by John C. Calhoun. 

1766. What important act was passed by Congress soon after the 
retirement of Webster ? 

The repeal of the bankrupt law, which had settled the 
financial troubles of the country, but which was abused to 
defraud creditors. 

1767. What political troubles marked the administration of Mr. Tyler .^ 
An insurrection in Rhode Island, headed by Dorr, who had 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 253 

been illegally declared governor, and wlio attempted to seize 
the arsenal. The act was regarded as high treason, and his 
troops were dispersed by the government, July, 1845. 

1768. What was the most important event of this administration ? 
The admission of Texas into the Union, February 23, 1845, 

with a view of forming more Slave states. Texas had been 
unrighteously seized by Southern " filibusters," headed by 
General Houston, greatly to the disgust and indignation of 
Mexico, to whom the territory belonged. 

1769. What resulted from this congressional act ? 

A war with Mexico, in the next .administration. 

1770. Under whose administration did the Mexican war take place ? 
Under that of James K. Polk, who succeeded Tyler in 

1845, and who selected James Buchanan for his secretary of 
state, and William L. Marcy for secretary of war, and George 
Bancroft for secretary of the navy. 

1 77 1. What was the issue between Mexico and Texas ? 

The true boundary of Texas, claimed to be that of the Rio 
Grande, by Texas, while Mexico claimed the whole territory. 

1772. What was the direct cause of war between Mexico and the 
United States ? 

The acknowledgment by the United States of the indepen- 
dence of Texas, won by the battle of San Jacinto, and its an- 
nexation to the United States. 

1773. When did hostilities commence ? 

Ill April, 1846, when an American force, under General 
Taylor, was ordered to the Rio Grande. 



254 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1774. What were the first important battles of the war ? 

Those of Palo Alto and Resaca, which compelled the 
Mexicans to retreat beyond the Rio Grande. 

1775. What brilliant victory was won by General Taylor on the 20th 
of September ? 

The capture of Monterey, on the high road to tlie capital, 
though defended by 10,000 men. 

1776. What did the Mexican government do after this disaster ? 

It recalled Santa Anna, the ablest of the Mexican generals, 
from Cuba, who raised an army of 20,000 men, and concen- 
trated them at San Louis Potosi, a force so large that the 
American general was obliged to act on the defensive. 

1777. What was the next step taken by the American government? 
To attack Mexico from the side of Yera Cruz, suggested 

by General Scott, to whom was entrusted the supreme com- 
mand. 

1778. What brilliant victory was won by Taylor while acting on the 
defensive, with an inferior force ? 

The battle of Buena Yista, 22nd of February, 1847, fought 
in a mountain gorge, in which 2,000 Mexicans were killed, 
which compelled Santa Anna to retreat to San Louis Potosi. 

1779. What was General Scott doing all the while ? 

He invested Yera Cruz with 12,000 men, which surren- 
dered the 29th of March, 1847, with a loss to the Americans 
of only 65 men killed and wounded. 

1780. Upon what did Scott resolve after the capture of Vera Cruz ? 
To march directly on Mexico. 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 255 

1781. What was his first important battle ? 

That of Cerro Gordo, gained by 9,000 men. 

1782. What followed this great victory over Santa Anna, who led the 
Mexicans ? 

The advance on Mexico, the battles of Contreras, Chuni- 
busco, and Chapultepec, the assault of Mexico, and its fall, Mth 
of September, with an army of less than 7,000 men on the side 
of the victors, against an army of more than 20,000 Mexicans. 

1783. What closed the war ? 

The treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, February 2, 1848, by 
which the territories of New Mexico and Upper California 
were given to the United States, and Mexico also released all 
claim on Texas. The United States, in consideration of these 
extensive grants, agreed to pay fifteen millions and assume a 
debt of $5,000,000 additional, which Mexico owed to her own 
citizens. 

1784. What was the political effect of this successful war ? 

It gave great eclat to the Whigs, and led to the election of 
General Taylor, the most popular of the generals, to the presi- 
denc}^ 

1785. What caused a great immigration to the United States during 
the administration of Polk ? 

The potato rot in Ireland, the political troubles of Europe 
and the prosperous condition of the United States. 

1786. What States composed the Union at the conclusion of the 
Mexican war ? 

The original 13 States, with the following additions : Ver- 
mont in 1791 ; Kentucky, 1792; Tennessee, 1796; Ohio, 1802; 
Louisiana, 1812; Indiana, 1816; Mississippi, 1817; Illinois, 



256 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1818 ; Alabama, 1819 ; Maine, 1820 ; Missouri, 1820 ; Arkansas 
1836; Michigan, 1837; Florida, 1845 ; Texas, 1845—28 in all. 

1787. What great discovery was made about the close of the war ? 
The discovery of gold, near Sutter's Mill, February, 1848, 

in California, which led to an immense immigration to the gold 
regions, and the settlement of California. 

1788. What were some of the consequences of the discovery of gold 
in California ? 

A gradual increase in the prices of labor and merchandise, 
a mania for speculation, and demoralization of the country, 
which, however, was materially enriched. 

1789. Who was president at the close of the Mexican war ? 
James K. Polk, succeeded by General Taylor, March 4, 

1849. 

1790. What eminent statesman died in 1850.^ 

John C. Calhoun, best known for his efforts in behalf of 
nullification. 

1791. What agitated Congress in its first session ? 

The slavery question, apparently settled by the compromise 
act, projDOsed by Henry Clay. 

1792. What death was the nation called upon to mourn in 1850? 
That of General Taylor, who died July 9. 

1793. Who succeeded him ? 

The vice-president, Millard Fillmore. 

1794. What was his most important appointment ? 
To make Daniel Webster secretary of state. 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 257 

1795. What disgraceful law did Congress pass in 1850? 

The Fugitive Slave Act, which called out the indignation 
of the friends of freedom, and led to great agitations, fanned 
bj Garrison, Theodore Parker, "Wendell Phillips, and others. 

1796. What important act passed Congress in 1851 ? 

The reduction of the letter postage, in imitation of the 
movement in England, headed by Rowland HilL 

1797. What illustrious man visited this country in 1851 ? 

Louis Kossuth, the Hungarian patriot, who excited univer- 
sal admiration for his eloquence. 

1798. What else marked the year 1851 ? 

The invasion of Cuba under General Lopez, which termi- 
nated in the defeat and death of Lopez. 

1799. What remarkable law passed the Maine legislature in 1851 ? 
That in reference to the sale of intoxicating liquors, which 

was prohibited. 

1800. What great statesmen died in 1852? 

Henry Clay, the 20th of June, and Daniel Webster, 24th 
of October. 

1 801. What else occurred of public interest in 1852? 

The opening of the Japanese ports to the ships of the 
United States. 

1802. Who succeeded Fillmore in 1853 ? 

Franklin Pierce, the youngest man that had ever been 
elected to the presidency. 

1803. Whom did President Pierce appoint as leading members of his 
cabinet ? 

William L. Marcy, as secretary of state, and Jefferson Davis, 
as secretary of war. 



258 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1804. What first called the attention of the new government? 
Dispute with Mexico about boundarieSj settled finally by 

negotiations. 

1805. What was the Clayton treaty ? 

That which was negotiated by Mr. Clayton, secretary of 
state, with Mr. Bulwer, the English minister, in which the 
doctrine was assumed that no further colonization of the 
American continent by Europeans should receive the sanction 
of the United States. This is called the Monroe doctrine. 

1806. What maritime enterprises took place in 1853? 

One to the Eastern coast of Asia, to facilitate navigation 
between China and the Western parts of the Pacific, and 
another in search of Sir John Franklin, under Dr. Kane. 

1807. What was the first industrial exhibition in the United States ? 
That which was opened in New York, July 14, in imita- 
tion of the Crystal Palace in London. 

1 808. What was the Koszta affair ? 

A demand from the Austrian government of satisfaction 
for the shelter given to Koszta, a Hungarian refugee. 

1809. What calamity marked this year ? 

The yellow fever in New Orleans, which carried off nearly 
7,000 people, and a railroad accident at Norwalk, Connecticut, 
in which fifty people were killed. 

1810. What political event of importance marked 1854? 

The incorporation of the vast territories between Missouri 
and the Kocky Mountains, into two Territories, called Kansas 
and Nebraska, and the abolition of the compromises of 1820 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 259 

and 1850, with permission for the inhabitants of those Terri- 
tories to decide whether slavery should be admitted or ex- 
cluded. 

181 1. What was the result ? 

Great agitations and riots, intensified by the enforcement 
of the Fugitive Slave Law. 

1812. What important seizure was made by Cuba in 1854? 

That of the American steamer, Blach Hawk^ on the pre- 
tense that an invasion of Cuba was meditated ; but the diffi- 
culties were soon amicably settled, the president being hostile 
to all filibustering. 

1 81 3. What was the Ostend conference ? 

That of leading ministers abroad with a view of securing 
the purchase of Cuba by the United States. 

1814. What popular poh'tical movement marked the administration of 
President Pierce ? 

" The Know-]^othing " movement, in the years 1855 and 
1856, growing out of jealousy of foreign immigration and the 
political influence of the Catholics. 

1 81 5. What maritime expedition obtained great consideration at this 
time? 

The expedition fitted out in search of Dr. Kane, who re- 
turned with the whole party after having spent two winters in 
high northern latitudes. 

1816. What important debates took place in Congress, in 1856? 
Those in reference to troubles in Kansas and Nebraska, 

growing out of anti-slavery agitation. 

1817. What produced a great sensation throughout the Union? 
The brutal attack upon Senator Sumner by Mr. Brooks, a 



26o POINTS OF HISTORY. 

member of the house from South Carolina, on the ground of 
the asperity of his speeches in reference to slavery. 

1818. Who succeeded Franklin Pierce as president in 1857 ? 
James Buchanan, who made choice of Lewis Cass for 

secretary of state ; Howell Cobb, for secretary of the treasury ; 
James H. Floyd, for secretary of war ; Isaac Toucey, for secre- 
tary of the navy ; Jacob Thompson, for secretary of the in- 
terior ; Jeremiah Black, for attorney-general ; and Aaron Y. 
Brown, for postmaster-general. 

1 819. What was the state of the country on the accession of 
Buchanan ? 

A growing alienation between the North and South. 

1820. What was the main cause of that alienation? 

The slavery question, and the irritating course which both 
northern and southern politicians took in regard to it. 

1821. What course was taken by the leaders of the democratic party 
that had elected Mr. Buchanan ? 

They played into the hands of the South, at the dictation 
of Mr. Douglas of Illinois, who aimed at the presidency. 

1822. What irritating event took place in 1859 ? 

The raid of John Brown into Virginia to excite an insur- 
rection of the slaves. He was taken and executed. 

1823. What decision of the United States supreme court increased 
the excitement between the North and South ? 

The Dred Scott decision which made slavery an organic 
law, and which denied all civil rights to negroes who were not 
citizens. 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 



261 



1824. What other political disturbances increased the growing hos- 
tility ? 

The invasion of Kansas with border ruffians, and their 

cruelties. 

1825. What was the upshot of the anti-slavery agitation ? 

The secession of the Southern states from the confederacy, 
while the forts and public property were held by the Federal 
government. 

1826. What outrage did the secessionists effect before the retirement 
of Buchanan ? 

They seized some forts and other United States property in 
the Southern states. 

1827. At this crisis, what was meditated by the South ? 

The seizure of Washington, to prevent the inauguration of 
Abraham Lincoln, who had been chosen president by the 
republican party. 

1828. Who were the most influential in preventing this calamity ? 
Attorney-general Stanton, Joseph Holt, secretary of war 

John A. Dix, and General Scott. 

1829. Whom did the president select for his cabinet ? 

William H. Seward, the leader of the Eepublican party in 
Congress, for secretary of state: Salmon P. Chase of Ohio, 
for secretary of treasury ; Simon Cameron, for secretary of 
war ; Gideon Wells, for secretary of navy ; Caleb B. Smith, for 
secretary of interior ; Montgomery Blair, for postmaster-gen- 
eral ; and Edward Bates, for attorney-general. 

1830. What happened shortly after the inauguration of Lincoln, 
March 4, 1861 ? 

A delegation from the confederate government, of which 



262 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

Jefferson Davis was president, and Alex. H. Stevens was vice 
president, with proposals for a peaceful solution. 

1 83 1. What course was taken by the secretary of state ? 

He declined to receive it in his official capacity — that is, 
the government of Washington refused to recognize the con- 
federate government which had chosen Kichmond for its seat. 

1832. What followed? 

The attack on Fort Sumter, defended by the United 
States troops, under Major Anderson. 

1833. What did this attack mean ? 

War between the North and South. 

1834. What course did the president pursue on the breaking out of 
hostilities ? 

He convened Congress, called out the militia, blockaded 
the southern ports, and raised about 50,000 volunteers, who in- 
vaded Virginia, with a view of putting down the rebellion. 

1835. What was the first battle of the war ? 

That of Bull Run, in which the national troops were 
routed. 

1836. What effect had this battle? 

It inflated the hopes of the South, and led to vast prepara- 
tions at the North for the prosecution of the war. 

1837. Who was made the commander of the national forces? 
General McClellan, who soon saw himself at the head of 

over 200,000 men, but undisciplined. 

1838. What military events took place during the remainder of the 
year 1861 ? 

None of importance, the time being consumed in disciplin- 
ing troops and making preparations on a gigantic scale. 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 263 

1839. What was done this year by the navy department ? 

A large fleet was raised to blockade the Southern ports, to 
prevent military supplies from England, which acknowledged 
the South as belligerents. 

1840. What marked the year 1862 ? 

The advance of the national forces upon Richmond, ably 
defended by the Confederates, under Lee and Johnston. 

1 841. What important battle marked this campaign ? 

That of Chickahominy, which led to the retreat of McClcl- 
lan to the James Eiver. 

1842. What course did the Confederate troops pursue in view of the 
failure of McClellan ? 

They invaded Maryland, under Lee, with a view to seize 
Philadelphia and dictate peace. 

1843. What great battle foiled the plans of the Confederates ? 

That of Antietam, gained by McClellan, which compelled 
Lee to recross the Potomac, which ought to have been pre- 
vented. 

1844. Who was then appointed head of the army in place of McClel- 
lan ? ^ ,. 

General Burnside, under whom was fought the disastrous 
battle of Predericksburgh, and he was superseded by General 
Hooker. 

1845. What more than balanced the disasters of the army of the 
Potomac ? 

The brilliant operations in the West, under Halleck, Grant 
and Sherman, by which the Mississippi was opened. 

1846. What victories secured this result ? 

The capture of Ports Henry and Donaldson by General 
Grant, which led to the fall of Nashville and Memphis. 



264 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1847. What was the result of the battle of Shiloh, gained by Grant 
and Sherman over Johnston and Beauregard ? 

The retreat of the Confederates to their third line of de- 
fences, which broke their communication between the Mis- 
sissippi and the Atlantic, and led to the recovery of Tennessee 
and Kentucky. 

1848. What was the next important event in the Western campaign ? 
The fall of Yicksburg, which opened the upper Mississippi 

to General Grant and bisected the Confederate territory. 

1849. Who rendered important services in opening the whole river to 
the national troops ? 

Admiral I^arragut, who took New Orleans, though strongly 
defended, 25th of April. 

1850. What important battle was fought among the Cumberland 
Mountains ? 

That of Murfreesborough, gained by Eosecrans over the 
Confederate general, Bragg, which, however, was not de- 
cisive. 

1 85 1. What important naval movement took place this year on the 
Atlantic Coast ? 

The fall of Port Eoyal, which secured a base of operations 
against South Carolina and Georgia, and led to the recovery of 
a large part of the Atlantic Coast, and a more effectual block- 
ade of the Southern ports. 

1852. What great injuries had, in the meantime, been inflicted on 
American commerce ? 

The fitting out of privateers by the South, with the conni- 
vance of the English government, which swept American mer- 
chantmen from the ocean. 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 26$ 

1853. What very important political event marked the close of the 
year 1862 ? 

Tlie proclamation of President Lincoln, though not issued 
till January 1, 1863, which abolished slavery in the United 
States — a war measure. 

1854. What was the first important battle in the campaign of 1863, 
by the army of the Potomac ? 

That of Chancellorsville, gained by Lee and Jackson over 
Hooker, who succeeded Burnside in the chief command, which 
was the culmination of the national disasters. 

1855. What course did Lee pursue after his great victory ? 

His second invasion of Pennsylvania as a political as well 
as a military "movement. 

1856. What great battle decided the campaign ? 

That of Gettysburg, gained by General Meade over Gen- 
eral Lee, July 3d, which compelled the retreat of Lee, with the 
loss of 60,000 men. 

1857. What great error did Meade make after his victory? 

He failed to follow up the retreating hosts with the neces- 
sary rapidity, so that they succeeded in recrossing the Potomac. 

1858. What marked military operations among the Cumberland 
Mountains } 

The battle of Chickamauga gained by Rosecrans and 
Thomas over Bragg and Longstreet, followed by the victory of 
Chattanooga, gained by Grant, the most brilliant battle of the 
war, for which he was made Lieutenant General. 

1859. What course did the victor then pursue? 

He left General Sherman to contend with Jolmston, who 



266 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

succeeded Bragg in the West, while he himself simultaneously 
assailed Lee in Virginia. 

i860. What bloody battle was fought in Virginia in 1864 ? 
That of the Wilderness, with immense loss on both sides, 
which led Grant to attack Richmond from the South. 

1 861. When was Richmond invested ? 

On the 30th of June, the siege of which occupied him the 
rest of the year. 

1862. What, in the meantime marked the movements of Sherman 
among the Alleghany mountains ? 

A magnificent series of flank movements, by which the 
confederate generals were compelled to retreat. 

1863. What was the culmination of his successes ? 

The fall of Atlanta, to which the confederates retired, 
and by which he was enabled to march to the sea unob- 
structed. 

1 864. What brilliant battle was gained by Thomas ? 

That of Nashville, over Hood, whose army was nearly an- 
nihilated. 

1865. What was the result of Sherman^s famous march ? 
The fall of Charleston and other southern cities. 

1866. What settled the war? 

The victory of Grant in 1865, at Five Forks, over Lee, 
which sealed the fate of Richmond. 

1867. After the fall of Richmond, what course did Lee pursue ? 

He attempted to retreat, and join the army of Johnston, 
but failed, and surrendered to Grant, 6th of April. 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 26/ 

1868. What followed this surrender ? 

The surrender of Johnston in North Carolina to Sherman, 
26th of April, and of Taylor, with all the forces east of the 
Mississippi, to General Canby on May 14th, and on the 26th of 
May, of all the forces west of the Mississippi. 

1869. What great national misfortune took place before the final 
close of the war ? 

The assassination of President Lincoln by a fanatic, named 
Booth, six weeks after he had entered on his second term. 

1870. When was the army disbanded ? 

On the 23d of May, 1865, which closed the history of the 
rebellion. 

1 87 1. Who greatly aided the president in the immense difficulties of 
the struggle ? 

Secretary Seward in his adroit management of foreign rela- 
tions, Stanton as war secretary, and Chase as secretary of the 
treasury, by whose management the credit of the country was 
sustained. 

1872. What loss of men did the North sustain in this bloody contest ? 
About 500,000, directly and indirectly. 

1873. At what other expense was victory gained ? 

A debt of nearly $3,000,000,000, besides other expenses. 

1874. What happened to the South ? 

The decimation of the people, the breaking up of slavery, 
the impoverishment of the country, and the complete humilia- 
tion of the population. 

1875. What generals most distinguished themselves in the war ? 
Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, and Thomas on the one side, 

and Lee, Johnston, and Jackson on the other. 



268 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1876. Who also rendered great aid to the national cause ? 

The governors of the States, on whom heavy responsibili- 
ties were placed. 

1877. What astonished the world in the conduct of the war ? 

The patriotism of the people — their patience, union, energy 
and hope, and the immense resources of the country. 

1878. What were the social results of the war ? 

General extravagance, high prices of labor, a spirit of spec- 
ulation, and general demoralization. 

1 879. What was gained by the war ? 

The preservation of the union, the abolition of slavery, the 
establishment of the national credit, and ultimate material 
prosperity. 

1880. Who became president on the assassination of Lincoln ? 
Andrew Johnson, the vice president. 

1 88 1. What events of public interest took place during his term of 
office? 

Acts of congress with the view of reconstruction, and va- 
rious semi-philanthropic movements to ameliorate the condition 
of the colored population of tlie South. 

1882. What were the most important of these movements ? 

The Union Commission and the Freedmen's Bureau — after- 
wards consolidated. 

1883. What noted proclamation was issued by the president, May 29, 
1865? 

That which declared the conditions by which the people of 
the south only could be restored to their civil rights as citizens 
of the United States. 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 26g 

1884. What were virtually these conditions? 

Allegiance to the government of the United States, and the 
recognition of the rights of the colored population. 

1885. How were the Southern States governed before their readmis- 
sion into the Union ? 

They were divided into military districts presided over by 
officers of the army, and by provincial governors appointed by^ 
the presid \\x. 

1 886. What was the first important act passed by congress? 
The civil rights bill, vetoed by the president. 

1887. What was the next important act ? 

The extension of the Freedmen's Bureau, also vetoed by the 
president. 

1888. What other veto on the acts of congress was declared by the 
president ? 

That which refused the admission of Colorado into the 
Union. 

1889. What was the effect of these vetoes ? 

It produced an alienation between congress and the presi- 
dent, and general dissatisfaction in the republican party. 

1890. Who were members of Johnson's cabinet ? 

The same at first as those selected by President Lincoln. 

1 891. What important convention was held in Philadelphia in August, 
1866? 

That from which an address was issued to the people of the 
whole country in favor of conciliation, and in support of the 
administration. 



270 • POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1892. What became of Jefferson Davis after the war ? 

He fled, but was captured, and imprisoned in Fortress 
Monroe. 

1893. What did congress intend to do with him ? 

To try him for treason and rebellion, but he was subse- 
quently pardoned. 

1894. What act did congress pass in reference to the district of Co- 
lumbia ? 

That which entitled all males, without distinction of color 
or race, to vote in all elections. 

1895. How did the president receive this act ? 

He returned it w^ith his objections, but it was passed by a 
two-thirds vote and became a law. 

1896. What proclamation did the president make in September? 
He proclaimed an amnesty w^hich relieved most of the 

whites in the Southern States from confiscation of property, 
and restored to them their civil rights as before the war. 

1897. What other important act was passed over the president's veto ? 
That which gave protection to the colored population, who 

were insulted and maltreated by their old masters, and by po- 
litical leaders. 

1898. What next act did the president commit which made him un- 
popular, and produced a conflict between him and congress ? 

He superseded Secretary Stanton, and the Senate refused 
to accept the suspension. 

1899. What course was taken by the general of the army in this con- 
flict? 

He supported Secretary Stanton by military power. 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 27 1 

1900. What then resulted ? 

The impeachment of the president by the House of Kepre- 
sentatives, and his trial before the Senate, presided over by 

Chief-justice Chase. 

1 90 1. What was the result of the trial ? 

The president was acquitted, on which Secretary Stanton 
resigned his office. 

1902. What important act was passed by congress before the close of 
the session of 1869 ? 

The fifteenth amendment of the constitution was pro- 
posed to the States and ratified. 

1903. What was the important provision of this amendment ? 

That which provided that the right to vote should not be 
denied in any State. 

1904. Who succeeded Andrew Johnson in the presidency ? 
General Grant, elected by a great majority. 

1905. Who became the leading member of his cabinet ? 
Hamilton Fish as secretary of state, on the transfer of Mr 

Washburn to the French mission. 

1906. When was the work of reconstruction accomplished ? 

In 1870, when the remaining States, lately in rebellion, 
were readmitted to the Union. 

1907. What troubles at the south still vexed the government ? 

The so-called Ku-Klux outrages, when the colored popula- 
tion and the loyal citizens were subjected to great persecution 
by the political leaders of the south, which crimes escaped con- 
viction and puuibhment. 



2/2 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

1908. What important treaty was made between the United States 
and Great Britain in May, 1871 ? 

That wliich settled disputed claims, and secured the free 
navieration of the St. Lawrence for the vessels of the United 
States, and the use of the Canadian canals, by paying toll. 

1909. How were the Ku-Klux outrages arrested by the government.? 
The president suspended the right of habeas corpus in cer- 
tain counties in South Carolina. 

191C. What next occupied the attention of congress during the first 
administration of General Grant } 

Civil service reform, which provided that fitting persons 
only should be selected for office in the service of the United 

States. 

191 1. What was the practical result of this important prospective re- 
form } 

It was practically defeated by the politicians, greedy of the 
spoils of office. 

1 91 2. What occupied the attention of the country in the summer of 
1872.? 

The usual excitements in reference to the election of pres- 
ident. 

1 91 3. What marked the legislation of congress during the second 
term of President Grant ? 

Questions of taxation, protection, the reduction of the na- 
tional debt, and civil service reforms. 

1 91 4. What event of national interest took place during the second 
term of President Grant ? 

The centennial exhibition, held in Philadelphia in 1876, 
which was participated in by all other nations. 



AMERICAN HISTORY. 273 

191 5. What political agitation took place in the fall of this year? 
That in reference to the rival claims of Mr. Tilden and Mr. 

Hayes to the presidency, on account of disputed votes in some 
of the Southern States. 

1 91 6. How was the question settled ? 

Kutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, was declared to be duly 
elected president. 

1 91 7. Who were the leading members of his cabinet ? 

Wm. M. Evarts, as secretary of state, and John Sherman, of 
Ohio, as secretary of the treasury. 

1 91 8. What marked the administration of President Hayes ? 

A period of great material prosperity, the growth of the 
various industries of the nation, the rapid development of 
wealth, and a wonderful increase in population and national 
resources. 

1919. What are among the most noted mechanical inventions thar 
have marked the last fifty years ? 

Reaping, mowing, and sewing machines ; improvements in 
cotton, woolen, and silk looms ; India rubber applications, tele- 
graphs, telephones, railway improvements ; and steam machin- 
ery in all departments of manufactures. 

1920. What are among the scientific improvements and enterprises? 
The application of electricity, the development of mines, 

ocean navigation, compressed air, chemical compounds, and 
agricultural fertilizers. 

1 92 1. What have marked the moral and intellectual progress of the 
nation within fifty years ? 

Educational movements, the multiplication of colleges and 



274 POINTS OF HISTORY. 

libraries, religious and pliilanthropical societies, public lectures, 
and improvements in churches and church music. 

1922. What have been more marked than moral and intellectual 
progress ? 

The increase of wealth, material prosperity, wonderful de- 
velopments in science and art, inventions to abridge labor, epi- 
curean pleasures, and disproportionate fortunes. 

1923. What does history teach us to fear from this splendid material 
life? 

The same evils which undermined the moral health of the 
old Roman world after successful conquests. 

1924. What does history teach us to hope ? 

That all evils will be overruled, and that there is a steady 
tendency, among all nations, to free institutions, and emanci- 
pation from all slaveries, through the benign influence of the 
Christian religion. 



INDEX 



Abd-el-Kader, page 199. 
Abelard, 68, 69. 
Aberdeen, (Lord) 2IO. 
Abraham, 2. 
Abyssinia, 214. 
Acropolis, 13. 
Actium, 41. 
Adam, I. 

Adams J., I55. I59. 236, 237. 
Adams J. Q., 245, 247, 249- 
Addison, 146. 
Adrianople, 197. 

^gospotamos, 13. 

/Emilius Paulus, 33. 

ilischylus, II. 

Afghanistan, 205. 

Agesilaus, 15. 

Agincourt, 80. 

Agricola, 46. 

Agrippa, 42. 

Agrippina, 45. 

Aix la Chapelle, 141. 

Alabama, 213, 215, 245. 

Alaric, 5i- 

Albemarle, 129. 

Albert (Prince), 208, 213. 

Albertus Magnus, 73- 

Albigenses, 71. 

Albret (Jeanne D'), 97- 

Alcibiades, 13. 
Alexander, 19, 232. 



Alexander Severus, 47. 
Alexander VI., 84. 
Alexandria, 20. 
Alexandrian Library, 22. 
Alfred the Great, 60. 
Algerines, 199. 
Algiers, 199. 
Ah Pasha, 196. 
Allen, 243. 
Allodialist, 65. 
Alphonso, 77. 

Alphonso v., 73. 

Alsace, 57. 

Alva, 99. 

Ambrose, 50. 

American Colonies, 127. 

Amherst (Lord), 152, 185. 

Amiens, 174. 

Amusements of the Middle Ages, 87. 

Analogy, 152. 

Anne, 145. 

Anselm, 64. 

Antietam, 263. 

Antioch, 21. 

Antiochus Epiphanes, 21, 33. 

Antiochus the Great, 21, 32. 

Antoninus Pius, 48. 

Antony, 41. 

Appian, 47. 

Appius Claudius, 26. 

Apulia, 63. 



2/6 



INDEX. 



Aquinas (Thomas), 73. 

Arago, 198, 200. 

Aransio, 37. 

Arbela, 20. 

Arbuthnot, 146. 

Arcadius, 52. 

Ardahan, 233. 

Areopagus, 8. 

Argus, 243. 

Argyle, 132. 

Aristophanes, 12. 

Aristotle, 18. 

Aristotelian Philosophy, 64. 

Arkwright, 161. 

Arlington, 129. 

Arminian, 149. 

Arminius, 100, 149. 

Armstrong, 243. 

Arnaud, 107. 

Arnold, 155, 156. 

Arnold of Brescia, 69. 

Arnott, 191. 

Aryan, 3. 

Ascham, Roger, 96. 

Ashburton Treaty, 206, 252. 

Ashley, 129. 

Asia Minor, 33. 

Asiatic Cholera, 190. 

Assyria, 4. 

Athanasius, 49. 

Athenian Schools, 18. 

Athens, 7. 

Atlanta, 264. 

Atkinson, 248. 

Attila, 53. 

Aukland, 205. 

Augustine, 50. 

Augustus, 42. 

Augsburg Confession, 92, 104. 

Augsburg League, 100, 110. 



Aurelian, 48. 
Aurungzebe, 119. 
Austerlitz, 176. 
Austria, 74, 229. 
Austrian Succession, 15 1. 
Austrian War, 221. 
Avars, 59. 
Avignon, 79. 

B. 

Babylon, 9, 21. 
Babylonian Captivity, g. 
Bacon Roger, 73, 75. 
Bacon Francis, 96, 121. 
Badajos, 185. 
Bagdad, 60. 
Bajazet, 79. 

Balance of Power, 17, 98. 
Balboa, 88. 
Baltimore, 243. 
Bank of England, 134. 
Bankrupt Law, 252. 
Bank National, 236. 
Bank U. S., 248. 
Bannockbum, 75. 
Barnes, 251. 
Barclay, 242. 
Baronius, loi. 
Barre 155. 
Barrot, 194, 20O. 
Barrow, 131. 
Bartholomew, St. 97. 
Basil, 51. 

Basilica Ulpia, 46. 
Baths of Titus, 46. 
Batoum, 233. 
Batthyanyi, 203. 
Baxter, 131. 
Bazaine, 223, 224. 
Beaconsfield. 216. 



INDEX. 



277 



Beaufort, 129. 

Beauregard, 264. 

Becket, 90. 

Bedford, 147. 

Bell, 218. 

Bern, 202. 

Benares, 158. 

Benedict, 64. 

Beneventum, 28. 

Bennington, 156. 

Bentley, 135, 148. 

Beranger, 198. 

Berkeley, 152. 

Berlin Conference, 2i6. 

Berlin and Milan Decrees, 239. 

Bernard, 68, 69. 

Berri, 193. 

Bessarabia, 233. 

Bessarion, 84. 

Bismarck, 227. 

Black, 217, 260. 

Black Hawk, 248, 259. 

Black Prince, 75. 

Blake, 126. 

Blanc, 200. 

Blenheim, 136, 145. 

Blockade of Southern Ports, 147. 

Blount, 147. 

Blucher, 185. 

Boccaccio, 77. 

Bohemia, 103. 

Bohemond, 68. 

Boileau, 120. 

Boleyn, 92. 

Bolingbroke, 146, 148. 

Bolivar, 195. 

Bonaparte, (Joseph) 183, 

Bonaventura, 73. 

Bonibaki, 223 

Boniface VIII., 75. 



Booth, 265. 
Borromeo, loi. 
Borodino, 179, 199. 
Bosnia, 233. 
Bossuet, 120. 
Boyne, 133. 
Braddock, 157. 
Bragg, 264. 
Brandenburg, 85. 
Brandywine, 156. 
Brewster, 191. 
Bridgewater, 243. 
Bright, 206, 214. 
Britain, 44. 
Brock, 240. 
Broglie, 199, 226. 
Brown, 131, 260. 
Brougham, 186, 188. 
Browning, 218. 
Bruce, 74, 214. 
Brunelleschi, 84. 
Bnitus, 40. 
Bucer, loi. 
Buchanan, 253, 260, 
Buckingham, 121, 129, 146. 
Buddhism, 5. 
Buena Vista, 254. 
Buffon, 172. 
Bulgaria, 233. 
Bull Run, 262. 
Bulwer, 204, 217, 258. 
Bunker Hill, 155. 
Bunyan, 131. 
Burdett, 186. 
Burgundian, 57. 
Burke, 154, 158, 166. 
Burleigh, 96. 
Burmese War, 187. 
Burnside, 263, 
Burr, 236, 238. 



278 



INDEX. 



Bute, 153. 
Butler, 152. 
Byng, 152. 
Byroh, 192. 

C. 

Caius Julius Csesar, 390. 
Caius Gracchus, 35. 
Caius Marcius, 25. 
Ccesar Borgia, 85. 
Calabria, 63. 
Calais, 95. 
Calamy, 131. 
Caledonia, 47. 
Calhoun, 241, 248, 256. 
California, 209. 
Caligula, 44. 
Calonne, 165. 
Calvin, 93, 149. 
Camden, 155. 
Camillus, 27. 
Campbell, 192, 197. 
Campo Formic, 170. 
Canals, 161. 
Candlish, 206. 
Canada, 240. 
Canadian Canals, 272. 
Canning, 182, 186, 217. 
Cannce, 31. 
Canrobert, 200, 223. 
Canossa, 63. 
Canterbury Tales, 78. 
Canute, 61. 
Caractacus, 44. 
Capo d'Istria, 196. 
Carlovingian Kings, 66. 
Carlyle, 218. 
Carnatic, 158. 
Carnot, 170. 
Caroline, 186. 



Caroline (Ship), 250. 
Carthage, 8, 28, 34. 
Carlstadt, 91. 
Casino, 64. 
Cass, 260. 
Cassius, 40. 
Casuists, 109. 
Castlereagh, 183. 
Catherine, 91, 115. 
Catherine de Medici, 97. 
Catholic Relief Bill, 1S8. 
Catholic University Bill, 216. 
Catiline, 40. 
Cavaignac, 200, 201. 
Cavour, 222, 230. 
Cawnpore, 210. 
Caxton, 82, 86. 
Cellini, 102. 
Celts, 27. 
Cerdric, 56. 
Cerro Gordo, 255. 
Chalmers, 256. 
Chalcondylas, 84. 
Chalons, 53. 
Chambord, 226. 
Champollion, 198. 
Chancellorsville, 265. 
Chandos, 76. 
Chapultepec, 255. 
Chariot Races, 42. 
Charles I., 122. 
Charles II., 128, 130. 
Charles V., 91, 94. 
Charles VI., 80. 
Charles VII., 81. 
Charles IX., 97. 
Charles X., 194. 
Charles XII. 114, ii5. 116. 
Charles Albert, 230. 
Charles the Bold, 86. 



INDEX, 



279 



Charles Edward, 151. 
Charles Martel, 58. 
Charlemagne, 59. 
Chartists, 2og. 
Chatham, 157, 159. 
Chattanooga, 265. 
Chaucer, 78, 
Churubusco, 255. 
Chesapeake, 243. 
Chickamauga, 265. 
Childers, 214. 
Childeric, 14, 58. 
Chillingworth, 126. 
Chili, 195. 
Clisthenes, 9. 
China, 4, 209. 
Chinese, 5. 
Chinese Wall, 28. 
Chippewa, 243. 
Chivalry, 76. 
Choiseul, 139. 
Cholera, 197, 247. 
Christian, 103. 
Christina, 201, 1 16. 
Chosroes, 57. 
Chrysostom, 52. 
Chrysoloras, 79. 
Church Property, 168. 
Churubusco, 255. 
Cicero, 31. 
Cimabue, 73. 
Cimbri, 37, 
Cincinnatus, 26. 
Civil Service Reform, 272. 
Clarendon, 128, 241, 246. 
Clay, 241, 257. 
Clayton Treaty, 258. 
Clemens, 47. 
Clement XIV., 139. 
Cleon, 13. 



Clifford, 129. 

Clive, 152, 157. 

Cloaca Maxima, 23. 

Clotilda, 56. 

Cobb, 26. 

Cobbett, 185. 

Cobden, 206, 212. 

Coblentz, 169. 

Cochrane, 243. 

Cockburn, 242. 

Code Napoleon, 175. 

Code and Pandects, 57. 

Coke, 96, 121. 

Colbert, 108. 

Coleridge, 192. 

Coligny, 97. 

Coliseum, 46. 

Collins, 146. 

Columbus, 85. 

Combermere, 187. 

Common Prayer, 94. 

Commune, 225. 

Cooper, 218. 

Conde, 106, 107, 109. 

Confederate, 263. 

Confucius, 5. 

Conrad, 14, 69. 

Conservatives, 79, 80, 204. 

Constantine, 118. 

Constantia, 69. 

Constantinople, 49, 71. 

Constant, 198. 

Constitution of America, 234. 

Constitution (Frigate), 241. 

Consuls, 24. 

Conti, 106. 

Contreras, 255. 

Cook, 157. 

Copenhagen, 182, 183. 

Copernicus, 192. 



28o 



INDEX. 



Copernican System, 120. 
Coriolanus, 25. 
Corinth, 17. 
Corneille, 219, 220. 
Corn Laws, 207, 266. 
Cornwallis, 156, 158. 
Coronsea, 14. 
Corporation Act, 188. 
Corps Legislatif, 219. 
Correggio, 102. 
Cortez, 93. 
Cotton Famine, 213. 
Courant, 148. 
Coverdale, 92. 
Cracow, 197. 
Cranmer, 92. 
Crassus, 39, 40, 
Creeks, 242. 
Cremieaux, 224. 
Crimean War, 230, 231. 

Cromwell, Oliver, 124, 125. 

Cromwell, Richard, 127. 

Cromwell, Thomas, 91. 

Crusades, 67. 

Crystal Palace, 258. 

Cuba, 257. 

Cudworth, 131. 

Culloden, 151. 

Cumberland, 151, 152. 

Cuneiform, 209. 

Curule, 24. 

Curule Officer, 24, 25. 

Cuvier, 172, 198. 

Cyane, 243. 

Cydnus, 14. 

Cyprian, 48. 

Cyprus, 233. 

Cyrus, 9, 
Czartoryski, I97. 



Dacia, 46. 
Dalton, 191. 
D'Alembert, 141. 
Danes, 60. 
Dante, 75. 
Darien, 9. 
Dartmouth, 146. 
Davis, 257, 262. 
David, 4. 
Davy, 191. 
Dearborn, 240, 242. 
Decameron, 77. 
Decemvirs, 26. 
Decatur, 241. 
Declaration of Right, 132 
D'Enghein, 175. 
De Foe, 152. 

Delhi, 210. 

Deluge, I. 

Demagogue, 35. 

Demetrius, 28, 45. 

Demosthenes, 17. 

Derby, 208, 210, 212. 

De Retz, 106. 

De Ruyter, 126, 129. 

De Quincy, 218. 

Descartes, 119. 

Desmoulins, 170. 

De Witt, 126. 

Devonshire, 147, 152. 

Diana of Ephesus, 8. 

Dickens, 217. 

Dicta^:orship, 26. 

Diderot, 140. 

Diocletian, 48. 

Dion Cassius, 48. 

Dion, 16. 

Dionysius, 15, 

Dionvsius the Youns[er, 16. 



INDEX, 



281 



Disestablishment of Irish Church, 215. 

Disraeli, 204, 208, 212. 

Dissenters, 146. 

Divina Commedia, 75. 

Dominicans, 7J, 

Domitian, 46. 

Donaldson, 263. 

Dolbach, 140. 

Don Carlos, 20i. 

Don John, loi. 

Dorr, 252. 

Douay, 223. 

Douglas, 260. 

Drake, 96. 

Draco, 7. 

Dreyse, 227. 

Dryden, 131. 

Dubois, 136, 137. 

Dufaure, 225. 

Dugdale, 131. 

Dumouriez, 170. 

Dunkirk, 128. 

Dun Scotus, 73. 

Dunstan, 61. 

Dunscombe, 204. 

Du Quesne, 151. 

Durham 204. 

Dutch Commerce, 100. 

Dutch Conquests, 119. 

E. 

East India Company, 148, 212. 

Eastern Question, 210. 

Echelon, 14. 

Ecclesiastical Titles Bill, 20g. 

Eck, 90. 

Ecnormus, 29. 

Edda, 73. 

Edge Hill, 124. 

Edict of Nantes, ill. 



Education Act, 215. 

Edwards, 150. 

Edward I., 74. 

Edward III.. 75. 

Edward IV., 82. 

Edward V., 83. 

Edward VI., 94. 

Effingham, 95. 

Egbert, 56. 

Egmont, 100/ 

Egypt, 21. 

Elba, 180. 

Eleanor, 70. 

Eliot, 217. 

Elizabeth, 95. 

Elizabeth of Russia, 142. 

Ella, 56. 

Ennius, 36. 

Epaminondas, 14, 30, 

Epictetus, 46. 

Epicurus, 18, 28. 

Erskine, 183. 

Espartero, 201. 

Essex, 96, 124. 

Essex (ship), 243. 

Etruscan, 27. 

Euclid, 28. 

Eugenie, 219. 

Eugene, II2, 118. 

Euripides, 11. 

Exchequer, 129. 

Exhibition, Great, 208. 

Expulsion of Roman Kings, 9. 

Eylau, 177. 



F. 



Fall of Man, i. 
Faraday, 218. 
Farragut, 264. 
Favre, 224. 



282 



INDEX, 



Faust, 83. 

Federalist, 234, 235. 

Fendon, 120. 

Ferdinand, 85, 94, 228. 

Feudalism, 65. 

Ficino, 84. 

Fielding, 152. 

Fieschi, 199. 

Fillmore, 256. 

Fire of London, 129. 

Fire of New York, 250. 

Five Forks, 264. 

Fleury, 138. 

Florida. 245. 

Floyd, 260. 

Folkestone, 209. 

Fontainebleau, 179. 

Forsyth, 241. 

Forum Trajanum, 46. 

Fox, 155, 158. 

Fox, George, 126. 

Foxes, 248. 

France, 60. 

Francis I., 92. 

Francis II., 97. 

Franciscans, 71. 

Franche Comte, 109. 

Francis Joseph, 229. 

Franks, 56. 

Franklin, 150, I57> 235. 

Franklin, Sir John, 258. 

Frederic, 70. 

Frederic Augustus, 118. 

Frederic Charles, 223. 

Frederic II., 72, 141. 

Frederic III., 118. 

Frederic William, 223. 

Frederic William IV., 202. 

Fredericksburg, 263. 

Free Church, 206. 



Free Trade, 207. 

Frobisher, 96. 

Froude, 106. 

Frolic, 241. 

Froissart, 223. 

Fugitive Slave Law, 257, 431. 



Galen, 45, 47. 

Galileo, 120. 

Gall, 198. 

Gall, St. 64. 

Galvanism, 191. 

Galitzin, 144. 

Gambetta. 224. 

Garner, 88. 

Garrison, 249. 

Garter, 76. 

Garibaldi, 230. 

Gaunt, John of, 82. 

Garrick, 162. 

Gates, 156. 

Gauls, 27. 

Gautama, 5. 

Gay, 146. 

George I., 147. 

George II., 152, 186. 

George III., 152. 

Geneva Conference, 215. 

Genseric, 52. 

Germany, 52. 

Germanic Barbarians, 44. 

Germanicus, 44. 

Gerson, 79. 

Gettysburg, 265. 

Ghibellines, 68. 

Giotto, 75. 

Girondists, 168. 

Gladiatorial Shows, 42. 

Gladstone, 204, 210, 212, 217, 



INDEX. 



283 



Glastonbury, 64. 
Godfrey, 68. 
Godolphin, 145. 
Goethe, 172, 198. 
Gold Discoverers, 209, 25^ 
Golden Fleece, 86. 
^Goldsmith, 162. 
Goodrich, 187. 
Gordon, 157. 
Gortschakoff, 227, 232. 
Goths, 50. 
Graham, 206. 
Granicus, 19. 
Granville, 150, 212, 214. 
Grafton, 154. 
Grant, 263, 264. 
Great Britain, 146. 
Greene, 157. 
Greek Revolution, 157. 
Greek Dramatic Poets, il. 
Greenwich Hospital, 134. 
Gregory the Great, 55. 
Gregory VII., 62, 63, 67. 
Gregory XIII.. 233. 
Gregorian Chant, 55. 
Greenville, 153, 183. 
Gresham, 96. 
Grey, 189. 
Grote. 204, 218. 
Guadaloupe, 255. 
Guatemala, 195. 
Grotius, 129. 
Guelph, 68. 
Guerriere, 241. 
Guizot, 198, 199, 200. 
Guiscard, 63. 
Guise, 97. 
Gundicar, 57. 
Gunpowder, 75. 
Gunpowder Plot, 121. 



Gutenburg, 62. 
Gustavus Adolphus, 104. 

H. 

Habeas Corpus, 130. 

Hadrian, 47. 

Hague, no. 

Hale, 126. 

Hall, 141. 

Halleck, 263. 

Haman, 229. 

Hamilcar, 30, 157, 160, 218. 

Hamilton, 124, 238. 

Hampton, 122, 123. 

Hampton, 242. 

Hancock, 157. 

Hannibal, 30, 32, 33. 

Hanseatic League, 72. 

Hapsburg, 74. 

Harold, 61. 

Harrison, 240, 241, 242, 261. 

Hardinge, 207. 

Harley, 146. 

Harvey, 126. 

Hastings, 152, 158. 

Hastings, Battle of, 61. 

Havelock, 212. 

Haydon, 218. 

Hazlitt, 192. 

Hegel, 198. 

Hellenes, 3. 

Hellespont, 10. 

Helots, 15. 

Heinsius, lOl. 

Helvetius, 140. 

Hengest, 56. 

Henry, 68, 155, 157. 263. 

Henry II., 70, 97. 

Henry III., 73, 117. 

Henry IV., 62, 78, 97. 



284 



INDEX. 



Henry V„ 8o. 
Henry VI., 8l. 
Henry VIH., 91. 
Heraclea, 28. 
Hercules, 7. 
Hermanneric, 50. 
Herschel, 191. 
H erodes Atticus, 47. 
Herodotus, 12. 
Herzegovina, 233. 
Hesiod, 8. 
Hieroglyphics, 198. 
High Commission, 122. 
Hildebrand, 63. 
Hill, 157. 
Hincmar, 61. 
Hipparchus, 36. 
Hobbes, 126. 
Hogg, 192. 
Holbein, 102. 
Holy Alliance, 181, 193. 
Homer, 8. 
Hooker, 96, 263. 
Hooper, 94. 
Hoplites, 13. 



Ibrahim Pasha, 202. 
Illinois, 245. 
Immigration, 248. 
Imperator, 41. 
Independence, 156. 
Independents, 125, 128, 149. 
India, 5, 21. 
India Bill, 158. 
Indians, 237. 
Inductive Philosophy, 18. 
Indulgences, 90. 
IngersoU, 241. 



Innocent I., 55. 



Inquisition, 85, 99. 
Invalides, 200. 
Ionian Cities, 14. 
Irish Land Act, 215. 
Irish Poor Laws, 208. 
Isabella, 85, 201, 202. 
Issus, 20. 
Ivan IV., loi. 
Ivry, 97. 



Jackson, 242, 244, 245, 265. 

Jaggelons, 147. 

Jamaica, 127. 

James I., 103, 121. 

James II., 131. 

James VI., 121. 

Janizaries, 138, 196. 

Jansen, 107. 

Jansenists, 106. 

Japan, 6. 

Japhet, 2. 

Java, 100, 241. 

Jay, 157, 235, 237. 

Jefferson, 157, 236, 237. 

Jeffreys, 131, 237. 

Jeffrey, 218. 

Jena, 176. 

Jerome, 57, 80. 

Jerusalem, 46, 68. 

Jesuits, 93, 100, 106, 130, 138, 198,233 

Jewell, 96. 

Joan of Arc, 80. 

John, 72. ^ 

Joshua, 162. 

Johnson, 96, 265. 

Johnston, 241. 

Joint Stock Company, 208. 

Jones, 102. 

Josephine, 198. 



INDEX. 



285 



Josephus, 33. 
Jovian, 49. 
Jousts, 77. 

Judas Maccabeus, 33, 
Julian, 49. 
Julius, II, 89. 
Jupiter, 8, 23. 
Justin Martyr, 47. 
Justinian, 57. 
Juvenal, 46. 



Kain, 25. 

Kant, 172. 

Kansas, 258. 

Kars, 233. 

Kent, 56. 

Kentucky, 273. 

Kepler, 102, 120. 

Kirke, 131. 

Knights Hospitallers, 68. 

Knolles, 76. 

Know Nothings, 259. 

Knox, 94. 

Kosciusko, 

Kossuth, 202, 257. 

Kotzebue, 172. 



Laches, 28. 

Lahore, 207. 

La Fayette, 156, 167, 194, 246. 

La Fitte, 199. 

Lainez, 93. 

Lamartine, 200. 

Lamb, 192. 

Lamoriciere, 2(X). 

Lancaster, 78. 

Lancashire, 161, 166. 

Landor, 192. 



Lansdowne, 183. 

Lanterne, 222. 

La Place, 172. 

I^atins, 19. 

Laud, 122, 123. 

Lauderdale, 129. 

Laurens, 143, 157. 

Law, 137. 

Laura, 78. 

Lavater, 132. 

La Vendee, 134. 

Layard, 209. 

League of Smalcalde, 104. 

Le Bran, 120. 

Lee, 157, 263, 265. 

Leuctra, 15. 

Leibnitz, I19. 

Leipsic, 179. 

Le Maitre, 107. 

Leo L, 52, 55. 

Leo X., 89. 

Leonidas, 10. 

Leopold, 135. 

Lepanto, loi. 

Lescot, 102. 

Letter Postage, 257. 

Lepidus, 41. 

Leuthen, 142* 

Levant, 243. 

Lexington, 155. 

Liberals, 204. 

Limerick, 133. 

Lincoln, 157, 261, 265. 

Lipsius, loi. 

Literary Period of Jews, 2 

Liverpool, 184. 

Livy, 42. 

Lockhart, 192. 

Lollards, 78. 

Lombards, 59. 



286 



INDEX 



Lombardy, 222, 230. 

Londonderry, 186. 

London University, 188. 

Longueville, 106. 

Longstreet, 264. 

Lopez, 257. 

Lorenzo de Medici, 83. 

Lorraine, 59, 97. 

Louisburg, 142, 152, 230. 

Louis VIL, 69. 

Louis IX., 72, 81. 

Louis XIL, 88. 

Louis XIV., 99, 106, 107, 109, 113, 134, 

164. 
Louis XV., 136. 
Louis XVIIL, 193. 
Louis Napoleon, 201, 230. 
Louis Philippe, 199. 
Louisiana, 137. 
Louvois, 108. 
Lowe, 214. 
Lowositz, 142. 
Lowth, 162. 
Loyola, 93. 
Lucan, 45. 
Luther, 90. 
Lutzen, 104. 

Luxemburg, 107, lio, III 
Lyndhurst, 186, 204. 
Lysander, 14. 



M. 



Mabillon, 120. 
Macaulay, 192. 
Maccabees, 22. 
Macartney, 163. 
McClellan, 262. 
McCulloch, 192. 
Macclesfield, 148. 
Macedonia, 241. 



Macedonian War, 32. 

Mackinaw, 240. 

McMahon, 221, 223, 225. 

Mackenzie, 207. 

Mackintosh, 192. 

Madison, 239, 245. 

Madrid, 185. 

Maecenas, 42. 

Magdalen College, 132. 

Magenta, 222. 

Magnesia, 33. 

Mahratta, 159. 

Maine, 245. 

Maintenon, ill. 

Magi, 6. 

Malplaquet, 145. 

Malte Brun, 198. 

Malthus, 192. 

Manchester, 128. 

Manichsean, 50. 

Manlius Dentatus, 28. 

Manlius Torquatus, 27. 

Manning, 218. 

Mansfeldt, 103. 

Mantinea, 15. 

Marat, 169. 

Marathon, 9. 

Marco Polo, 73. 

Marcus Aurelius, 47. 

Marcy, 253, 257. 

Marengo, 174. 

Maria Theresa, 141. 

Mary de Medici, 99, 106. 

Marie Antoinette, 170. 

Marius, 36, 37. 

Marlborough, iio, 112, 118, 136, 145. 

Manning, 76. 

Marseilles, 72. 

Marshall, 238. 

Marston Moor, 124. 



INDEX. 



287 



Martial, 45, 46. 
Mary of Burgundy, 86. 
Marvel, 131. 
Mason, 241. 
Maupas, 219. 
Maurepas, 164. 
Maurice, loi, 218. 
Maximilian, 86, 222. 
Mazzini, 202, 230. 
Meade, 265. 
Mecca, 58. 

Mecanique Celeste, 172. 
Medes, 5. 
Medici, 82. 
Mehemet Ali, 202. 
Melancthon, 91, loi. 
Melbourne, 190, 203. 
Mencius, 5. 
Menzikoff, 116. 
Merovingian, 57. 
Messalina, 45. 
Metaura, 32. 
Metellus, 36. 
Meton, 12. 
Methodists, 149. 
Metternich, 195, 202, 228. 
Metz, 57, 224. 
Mexican War, 253. 
Mexico, 195, 223, 255, 258. 
Michael Angelo, 98. 
Mill, 192, 218. 
Miltiades, 9. 
Milton, 126. 
Minorca, 152. 
Mirabeau, 140, 166, 167. 
Mississippi Company, 137. 
Missolonghi, 196. 
Missouri, 246. 
Mithridates, 38, 39. 
Mithridatic War, 37. 



Mohammed, 58. 
Mohammed II., 82. 
Moliere, 120. 
Molina, 107. 
Moltke, 227. 
Monk, 127. 
Monmouth, 132. 
Montecuculi, 118. 
Monroe, 245. 
Monroe Doctrine, 258. 
Monterey, 254, 
Montespan, 109. 
Montesquieu, 140. 
Montgomery, 155, 192. 
Montpensier, 2CX3. 
Moore, 184, 192. 
Moriscoes, 99. 
Morpeth, 204. 
Moscow, 114, 179. 
Moses, 3. 

Murfreesborough, 264. 
Murillo, 120. 

N. 

Namur, no. 
Nantes, 98. 
Napier, 126. 
Napoleon, 73, 170, 175. 
Napoleon III., 219, 220. 
National Bank, 244. 
Narvaez, 201. 
Naseby, 124. 
Nashville, 263. 
Navigation Act, 126. 
Navigation Law, 208. 
Navarino, 196. 
Nebraska, 259. 
Necker, 164, 165, 167, 169. 
Needle Gun, 227. 
Nelson, 163, 182. 



288 



INDEX, 



Neerwinde, IIO. 

Nero, 45. 

Nerva, 46. 

Netherlands, 113. 

New Castle, 150. 

New Mexico, 255. 

New Orleans, 244. 

Newman, 268. 

^ewton, 147. 

Niagara, 243. 

Nice, 49. 

Nicias, 13. 

Nicholas, 199, 2IO, 229^ 231. 

Nicholas V., 84. 

Niebuhr, 198. 

Niebelungen Lied, 73. 

Niemen, 177. 

Nimeguen, 109. 

Nineveh, 4. 

Nonconformists, 96, 

Noah, 2. 

North, 154, 156. 

Norwalk, 258. 

Normandy, 7(X 

Numantia, 34. 

Numantian War 

Numidian, 36. 

Gates, 130. 
O'Brien, 209. 
O'Connell, 204. 
Octavia, 41. 
Odo, 61. 
Ohio, 237. 
Ojeda, 88, 
Ollivier, 223. 
Olympic Games, 7. 
Orange Lodge, 191. 
Orleans, 51, T36, 194. 
Orloff, 143. 



Ormond, 128. 
Osceola, 249. 
Ostracism, 8 
Othman, 74. 
Otho, 202. 
Otho IIL, 61. 
Otis, 155. 
Gude, 158. 
Ovid, 42. 

Owen Glendower, 78. 
Oxford, 64, 146, 147. 
Oxford Tracts, 206. 

P. 

Pakenham, 244. 

Palmerston, 184, 186, 204, 210, 212. 

Palmyra, 48. 

Palais Royal, 169. 

Palace of the Caesars, 45. 

Panormus, 30. 

Palestivna, 102. 

Papineau, 204. 

Paraguay, 195. 

Paris, 56, 210, 224. 

Parliaments, 73. 

Parliament of Paris, 105. 

Parker, 96. 

Parma, 100. 

Parthian, 47. 

Parthenon, 11. 

Pascal, 109, 120, 138. 

Patrician, 24. 

Patriarchal Rule, 23. 

Pedro, 195. 

Peel, 186, 187, 204, 206, 210. 

Pelopidas, 15. 

Pelagius, 50, 51. 

Pelasgians, 3. 

Pelham, 150. 

Peloponnesian War, ii, 12. 



INDEX. 



289 



Penn, 131. 

Penny Postage, 206. 

Penguin, 243. 

Pepin, 58. 

Percival, 183. 

Perier, 199, 225. 

Perry, 241, 243. 

Pericles, 11. 

Persecution, 47, iii. 

Persepolis, 21. 

Persians, 47. 

Peru, 195. 

Peter, 114, 115, 116. 

Peter III., 142. 

Peter Waldo, 70. 

Petrarch, 78. 

Pharsalia, 40. 

Phidias, ii. 

Philadelphia, 156. 

Philippa, 76. 

Philip, 17, 32, 86. 

Philip II., 99. 

Philip v., 113. 

Philip Augustus, 71. 

Phoenicia, 4. 

Piedmont, 222. 

Pierson, 131. 

Pinckney, 157, 238, 241, 242. 

Piraeus, 11, 12. 

Pisa, 72, 79. 

Pisistratus, 8. 

Pitkin, 241. 

Pitt, 16, 82, 152, 153. 

Pittsburgh, 151. 

Pius IX., 230. 

Pizarro, 93. 

Plague of Florence, 77. 

Plattsburgh, 243, 240. 

Platina, 84. 

Plato. 16. 



Plebeians, 24. 

Pliny, 46. 

Plutarch, 41. 

Poictiers, 75. 

Poland, 60, 143, 197, 

Polk, 253, 255, 256. 

Polignac, 194. 

Politiano, 84. 

Polygnotus, 12. 

Polybius, 36. 

Pompey, 39, 40. 

Pontine Marshes, 36. 

Popery Riots, 157. 

Pope, 146. 

Popish Plot, 130. 

Port Royal, 264. 

Portland, 183. 

Pompadour, 139. 

Portugal, 195. 

Potato Rot, 255. 

Potemkin, 143. 

Poussin, 120. 

Praetorians, 45. 

Praxiteles, 28. 

Precession of Equinoxes, 36. 

Presbyterians, 96, 128. 

Presbyterian Church, 251. 

Press, 133. 

Preston, 124. 

Pretender, 149. 

Proctor, 242. 

Priestley, 161. 

Privateering, 210. 

Protestantism, 90. 

Provincial Letters. 138. 

Ptolemy, 21, 22, 47. 

Ptolemy Philadelphus, 22. 

Pugin, 218. 

Pultovva, 155. 

Punic War, 29. 



290 



INDEX. 



Pusey, 206. 
Pydna, 33. 
Pyirhus, 22. 
Pym, 122. 
Pyrro, 18. 



Quaestors, 25, 26. 
Queenstown, 240. 
Quintus Flavius, 27. 
Quintilian, 45. 
Quincy, 155. 

R. 

Racine, 120. 
Raglan, 210. 
Railways, igi. 
Railway Mania, 208. 
Raleigh, 96, 121. 
Ramilles, 136. 
Ravaillac, 98. 
Raynal, 172. 
Raymond, 68. 
Reform Bill, 189, 214. 
Regulus, 29, 30. 
Rembrandt, 120. 
Remusat, 225. 
Republican, 234. 
Reuchlin, 91. 
Resaca, 254. 
Reynolds, 162. 
Rhegium, 29. 
Rhode Island, 252. 
Ricardo, 192. 
Richardson, 152. 
Richard, 71. 
Richard II., 78. 
Richard III., 83. 
Richelieu, 105, 114. 
Richter, 198. 



Rienzi, 77. 

Robespierre, 168, 170. 

Rochester, 146. 

Rockingham, 154, 158. 

Rogers, 192. 

Roman Empire, 41. 

Roman Jurisprudence, 26. 

Roman Navy, 29. 

Romulus, 23. 

Rose, 212. 

Rosecrans, 265. 

Rossbach, 142. 

Rousseau, 166. 

Rubens, 102, 120. 

Rudolph, 74. 

Rupert, 129. 

Russell, 130, 188, 189, 204, 208, 209, 

213. 
Russia, 178. 
Rye House Plot, 130. 
Ryswick, no. 



Sacheverell, 146. 
Sacs, 248. 
Sadowa, 228, 231. 
Safety Lamp, 191. 
Saguntum, 31. 
Saladin, 71. 
Salamis, 10. 
Salisbury, 216. 
Salvator Rosa, 120. 
Samnites, 19, 27. 
San Jacinto, 253. 
San Louis Potosi, 254. 
Santa Anna, 254. 
Saracen, 58. 

Saracenic Conquest, 58. 
Sardinia, 210. 
Savannah, 192. 



INDEX. 



291 



Savonarola, 83, 84. 

Saxe, 140, 151. 

Saxe Coburg, 205. 

Say, 198. 

Scaliger, loi. 

Schiller, 172. 

Schlegel, 198. 

Schoeffer, 83. 

Schomberg, 133. 

Schwartz, 75. 

Scinde, 206. 

Scipio, 23. 

Scipio Africanus, 32, 33. 

Scipio ^milianus, 34. 

Scotch Church, 206. 

Scott, Dred, 260. 

Scott Walter, 192. 

Scott General, 243, 252, 254. 

Scroop, 78. 

Sebastopol, 210, 231. 

Sedan, 224. 

Selden, 131. 

Seleucus, 4. 

Senef, 109. 

Seminoles, 242. 

Senate, 24, 25. 

Senate French, 219. 

Seneca, 45. 

Sepoys, 210. 

Septennial Act, 247. 

Serfs, Emancipation of, 232. 

Servile War, 38. 

Servius Tullius, 24. 

Septimius Severus, 47, 

Seward, 265. 

Sextus Pompey, 41. 

Shaftesbury, 130. 

Shakespeare, 96. 

Sheil, 204. 

Shelburne, 158. 



Shem, 2. 

Shepherd Kings, 3.. 

Sherman, 264, 265. 

Shiloh, 264. 

Shore, 159. 

Sieyes, 166. 

Sikhs, 207. 

Silesia, 141. 

Silk Manufacture, 57. 

Simon, 226. 

Simon De Monlfort, 72. 

Simplon, 174. 

Sismondi, 198. 

Slavery, 35, 190, 249, 256, 265. 

Smith, 160. 

Smolensk, 178. 

Smollett, 152. 

Sobieski, 117. 

Social War, 37. 

Socinianism, 149, 

Socrates, il. 

Soissons, 57. 

Solferino, 222. 

Solyman, 94. 

Solon, 7. 

Sophists, II. 

Soult, 199. 

Southey, 192. 

South Sea Company, 147. 

Spain, 34, 113. 

Spanish Succession, H2, 134 

Sparta, 7, 13. 

Spartacus, 38. 

Spirit of Laws, 140. 

St. Arnaud, 200, 2IO, 219, 

St. Clair, 236. 

St. Denis, 64. 

St. John. 146. 

St. Petersburg, 116. 

St. Simon, 198. 



292 



INDEX. 



St. Sophia, 57. 
Stael, 173. 
Stamp Act, 154. 
Stanley,, 204, 206, 2l8. 
Star Chamber, 122, 
State Rights, 236. 
States-General, 165. 
Steele, 146. 
Steinkirk, no. 
Steinmetz, 223. 
Stephen, 69. 
Stephenson, 218. 
Stewart, 79. 
Steuben, 157. 
Stevens, 262. 
Stockton, 241. 
Strafford, 122. 
Strieker, 243. 
Stuart, 147. 

Submarine Telegraph, 209 
Sub-treasury, 250. 

Suetonius, 46. 

Su§:er, 69. 

Sulla, 37. 38, 99- 

Sumner, 259. 

Sumter, 262. 

Susa, 21. 

Sussex, 56. 

Sutter's Mill, 256. 

Suwarrow, 144. 

Swift, 146. 

Sydenham, 206. 

Sydney, 96, 131. 

Sylvester II., 61. 

Syracuse, 16. 

Syria, 21, 32. 

T. 

Talavera, 184. 
Talleyrand, 161. 



Talent, 2i. 

Tancred, 68. 

Tarentum, 27. 

Tariff, 236, 244. 

Taylor, 96, 131, 253,. 255, 256. 

Tell, 75. 

Telegraph, 191. 

Templars, 68. 

Temple, 131. 

Tennis, 237. 

Tennyson, 218. 

Terence, 36. 

Teutonic. 37. 

Teutonic Order, 71. 

Teutonic Knights, 74. 

Texas, 249, 253. 

Thackeray, 214. 

Thales, 9. 

Theban War, 30. 

Thebes, 14, 199, 200, 224. 

Theodosius, 50. 

Themistocles, 10, 13. 

Thermopylae, 10. 

Thespis, 8. 

Thomas, 264. 

Thompson, 260. 

Tiberius, 44. 

Tiberius Gracchus, 35. 

Tillemont, 120. 

Tilsit, 177. 

TiKiour, 79. 

Timoleon, 16. 

Tippoo Saib, 159. 

Tippecanoe, 251. 

Titian, 102. 

Titus, 46. 

Totleben, 210. 

Tower, 131, 145- 

Tower of London, 65. 
Toucey, 260. 



INDEX. 



293 



Tournaments, 77. 
Trebizond, 84. 
Trent, 213. 
Trafalgar, 176, 183. 
Trochu, 224. 
Trojan War, 4. 
Tribune, 25, 26. 
Triremes, 13. 
Tudor, 83. 
Turgot, 164, 
Turner, 218. 
Turks, 74. 

Turkey, 118, 197, 233. 
Turenne, 118. 
Tycho Brahe, 102. 
Tyrconnel, 133. 
Tyler, 251. 
Tyre, 20. 
Tyndale, 92. 

U. 

Ulpian, 48. 
Uniformists' Act, 128, 
Unitarian, 150. 
University Reform, 215. 
Upshur, 252. 
Utrecht, 112. 

V. 

Victor Emmanuel, 222. 



W. 



104. 



Wall, 161. 
Waller, 131. 
Wallenstein 
Walton, 131. 
Wallace, 74, 78 
Walpole, 147. 
Warwick, 82. 
Walsingham, 96. 



Wasp, 241. 

Washington, 155, 235. 

Waterloo, 180. 

Wayne, 237. 

Wealth of Nations, 161. 

Wellington, 173, 178, 184, 206, 209. 

Westminster, 64, 68. 

Westphalia, 104. 

Webster, 241, 246, 251, 256. 

Wesley, 149. 

Wellesley, 149, 150, 163. 

Wentworth, 122. 

Wessex, 56. 

Whigs. 131, 141, 255. 

Wickliffe, 78. 

Wieland, 172. 

Wilberforce, 160, 183, 218. 

Wilkes, 253. 

Wilderness, 264. 

William I., 61. 

William III., no, 132. 

William IV., 188. 

William the Silent, 99. 

William of Nassau, no. 

William of Orange, 108. 

Wilkinson, 242. 

Wilson, 192. 

Winchester, 78, 241. 

Winnebagoes, 248. 



Xantippus, 30. 
Xenophon, 14. 
Xerxes, lo. 
Ximenes, 85. 



Z. 



Zomdorf, 142. 
Zwingle, 91, 



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